On Boy Trouble Essay

â€Å"On Boy Trouble† Essay In the essay, â€Å"On Boy Trouble† by Margaret Wente, many points were introduced to the readers. Margaret Wente lures the readers to her article by using an opening sentence such as â€Å"They are tormented by unattainable ideals,† (pg. 427). Wente attracts the readers by exercising her writing abilities and using effective and efficient words and phrases. Also, the use of allusions are very effective. Margaret Wente’s charismatic style of writing is very helpful to the readers in a way that differs from most other writers. With Wente’s style of writing, the reader does not get bored or sidetracked while reading her craftsmanship. Margaret Wente opens up about her research on the male society. She proves a somewhat non-biassed point about what type of torture and anguish most adolescent males go through in order to â€Å"fit in†. Wente expresses her points in a very effective manner by issuing facts, and examples, that seduces the reader into reading more. This is a magnificent piece of writing and is easy to read. One who is not very eager to pick up a highly intellectual piece of writing because of being in fear of becoming lost or confused while reading, should not worry about this piece. Wente does not use too many â€Å"big† words in her essay, but does include some very effective ones. The article, â€Å"On Boy Trouble†by Margaret Wente is a highly educational piece of writing, that tests the brain power of the reader, but does not stress it. Firstly, Wente’s use of effective words are one forceful way to attract the reader. Margaret Wente used such words as â€Å"psychological debilities†, â€Å"victims du jour†, â€Å"excruciating†, and â€Å"an orgy of introspection†. These words contribute to the success of her article. When a reader sees these types of words, they are immediately attracted to the piece and feel that the writer is highly intellectual. Words like â€Å"psychological debilities† are two highly intelligent words that would normally only be used by master scholar’s, or a philosopher of some sort. Words like these contribute to the effectiveness of the writing piece and it almost dares the reader to read further. In addition, a high vocabulary is very necessary for the author to possess in order to have an effective essay. The author’s choice of words, or diction, is a great way to get a point across to the readers, or the viewers. If a writer wrote a n article at a grade 5 level, the readers would most likely lose interest fairly quickly. The more intellectual the writer  seems, the more the readers will trust the writer, and listen to the writer, and understand the writer. Secondly, Wente’s charismatic style of writing keeps the reader involved in the article. Wente’s sense of knowledge and understanding about what a typical adolescent male goes through is simply amazing. The way the writer informs the reader of this topic is astounding. The way she states her ideas and beliefs are dumbfounding because of how easily she explains everything by backing them up with facts and examples. While explaining what an adolescent males has to face in a physical aspect of being â€Å"buff† and in shape, she does so in a very informative, and somewhat comedic manner. Wente says that a teenage male is being stereotyped into having to have arms like G.I. Joe. Wente states, â€Å"G.I. Joe, whose biceps, if life-sized, would measure an astonishing 32 inches† (pg. 428). Obviously, that is a comedic way of getting her point across. Next, when Wente said, â€Å"Everyone else – nerd, geek, Goth, or plain, unlabelled loser – is subject to emotional abuse whose scars may last a lifetime.† (pg. 429), she is so close to reality, it is scary. In addition, sometimes it is good to inform the reader without beating around the bush. The conclusion to the essay was especially effective because it makes the reader feel that Margaret Wente is actually talking to them, one-on-one. Wente stated, â€Å"Either way, consider yourself warned. Your son needs help, and lots of it†. It is good to just say what is on one’s mind straight up, without glamorizing things. Lastly, the use of allusions also contributed to the article. Margaret Wente referred to many different types of books in her essay. Wente spoke about Susan Faludi’s most recent book, Backlash, and her upcoming book, Stiffed. Also, Margaret Wente mentioned many other book titles when she said, â€Å"Books with titles like Real Boys, Raising Cain, Wonder of Boys, and Lost Boys are flying off the shelves† (pg. 428). â€Å"Forget Reviving Ophelia. It was Hamlet who had the real problems† (pg. 428) was also an allusion. Allusions don’t usually contribute to an essay in such a way that this does. Allusions are just a way to help the reader’s understanding and a way to help the reader’s point get across. On the other hand, an allusion usually only appears in an essay once or twice, if any, but this essay was more effective because of  the massive allusions involved. Margaret Wente also made reference to the masterpiece movie, Lord of the Flies. A llusions can be extremely effective if they are used properly. In conclusion, Margaret Wente’s style of writing is highly educational and requires the reader to think, but only to a certain degree. Margaret Wente is a literature genius and obviously knows her work. Her research of adolescent males is astonishing, and pretty much unbelievable. One could be almost positive that most adolescent males may not be as aware of what is happening to them as Margaret Wente is. Her skills in writing are obviously exercised in this piece. An adolescent male does go through a lot of pain and suffering in their teenage years in order to try to mould themselves into this ridiculous stereotype. Therefore, in order to be a successful writer, one must know what they are talking about, in order to inform others.

Critical Thinking and Old Man

Directions: In complete sentences, answer the following questions. Be thorough in your responses. These are critical thinking questions, which means you will have to go beyond what is written in the story†¦you need to INFER. Your grade will depend on your thoughtful and insightful answers. Answers should be at least 2-3 complete sentences in length. Prologue and pages 3-10 (stop at the asterisk) 1. Why does Coelho open with the modified myth of Narcissus? How does the new version differ from the original one? How does it change the myth’s meaning? What might the author be suggestion about how we perceive ourselves and the world? 2. The novel opens with Santiago thinking about his sheep. What does he observe about their existence? How might the sheep symbolize the way some people live their lives? How does his observation that they â€Å"have forgotten to rely on their own instincts† foreshadow what might be coming in the novel? 3. To what degree is Santiago’s father’s observation about travelers (page 9) true about Santiago? Pages 10 (start after the asterisk)- 25 (stop at the asterisk) 1. Why does the old fortune teller say that Santiago’s dream is difficult to interpret? Why is Santiago suspicious of her? 2. The old man tells Santiago a story about a miner and an emerald. How does it connect to Santiago’s situation? What does the old man mean when he says that â€Å"treasure is uncovered by the force of flowing water, and it is buried by the same currents? † What does this quote have to do with the story of the miner and the emerald? 1) By telling the new version he wants to tell his own interpretation of narcissus. The original version is about finding inner beauty but Coelho’s version is about finding meaning of life and the life’s purpose. The difference is because it leaves out how the lake cared about to much of its beauty and less about there people. The new one reflects upon the positive outcomes as the original has a negative term. The suggestion is made through the book where Santiago had to see what the world looked like and he gave up a his parents dram and followed his own dreams no matter what.

The Effects of Biblical Violence on Readers' Behaviors Essay

The Effects of Biblical Violence on Readers' Behaviors - Essay Example Although studies from the American Academy of Pediatrics give a low rate on the effects of music on listeners’ behaviors, that lyrics are generally not given much attention or in the case of children, are not fully understood because of their limited understanding and experience, researchers are open to the idea that somehow songs suggest certain undesirable actions. In a world where violence abounds, it is not a wise action for a person to isolate himself or for parents to isolate their children only to avoid the evils of this world. It is then important for every individual to educate one’s self and others about the consequences of a certain thought or action. For instance, the last lines of the aforementioned psalm speak about revenge to those who have done the Jews harm. However if one examines the verse closely, it is not the Jews who want to avenge themselves but that there would be another who would stand up against their enemies. This reveals their belief in the golden rule, that those who have wronged them will get their just punishments somehow. Such understanding could lead people to avoid doing evil towards others. II Yes, the Liturgy of the Hours should include the end of Psalm 137 however; it should be with the explanation or interpretation like that of St. Augustine’s, Origen’s, St. Ambrose’s and the like. The Bible could be interpreted literally and figuratively so it could not be treated similarly to lyrics of modern music where promiscuity and violence are explicitly expressed. As it is always advised by professionals in the case of children, parents should guide their children in the choice of songs they listen to and clearly explain to hem what is good and what is not. Indeed, words have psychological effects on people so that even adults should choose their songs or meditate on the good implications of the songs rather than its evil suggestions. The Bible is actually full of stories of violence and promisc uity and surely, God did not like such stories to be exposed just for the sake of telling a story about a person rather have been narrated along with the consequences experienced by the people involved. They seem to be words from a parent saying, â€Å"Look, this is what happens to you if you do this and that.† This world is full of so many evils and that is just the way the God of the Bible wants people to look at it so that they would know how to prepare for the dangers they face each day. Therefore, preachers should do likewise, presenting all the truths and not just the things people want to hear from them. They have to send the people from the church to the world, armed with the necessary attitude and words of guidance that will keep them strong to avoid being involved in violent acts. III A group of students associated with campus ministry at CUA wants to have a liturgical service which includes a reading of Psalm 137, which they understand through the lens of St. Augus tine’s interpretation: Jerusalem represents the kingdom of God and Babylon represents the corruption of this world. Some students think the language at the end of Psalm 137 is too violent to be read or prayed, and point out that the Catholic Church has removed these verses from the Liturgy of the Hours.  

Critically analyse how the concentration ratio has evolved, in recent Essay

Critically analyse how the concentration ratio has evolved, in recent years, in the following EU industry - Public Utilities.carefully consider the reasons for - Essay Example The initiative of the European Commission way back in 1969 is to coordinate the economic policies as well as to set a monetary integration among the European Union. In 2007, the goal European Commission has proven to be very successful. Having implemented the ‘Euro’ (â‚ ¬) currency back in 1999 is part of the strategy used by the European Union in achieving their purpose of making the inter-regional and inter-state trading much easier. The constantly growing economic activity within the European Union has resulted to a tight competition among the members of the EU banking and financial sector. In order to cope with the intensive competition within the industry, most of the small banks have decided to enter into a merger. The merger of the small and medium scale banks would enable them to maximize its resources through the use of economies of scale. services in order to attain a better and more competent economy. The ‘trade and investment relationship’ between the current EU members with a more profitable investment locations in Central and Eastern Europe is very promising. In fact, the ‘concept’ of inter-state trading and investments is being used by the EU commissioners to encourage more countries to become a member of the European Union.2 employment opportunity for the local people before globalization in 2001. Given the huge domestic market of the European Union, the members of EU is able to gain more strength that attracts many of the World Trade Organization (WTO) members to deal with the European Union.3 (See Table I below and Chart I on page 6) Notice that between years 1998 to 2000, the GDP of European Union has been constantly increasing. It means that the production output of the European Union was steadily growing. Normally, when the GDP is increasing, the unemployment is decreasing. Starting in 2001 when globalization became active,

Pathology Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Pathology - Case Study Example known kind of primary bone cancer that affects children and young persons{"status":"TOOLBAR_READY","toolbarId":211628906} and the second most rampant overall after chondrosarcoma. Osteosarcoma begins when a single bone cell gets abnormal and grows out of control to create a lump of cancerous tissues referred to as a tumor. The cells within the tumor still act as a bone and tries to make new bone as they grow and divide. In case a pathologist can see a bone in a tumor sample through the use of a microscope, this assists in confirming the diagnosis of osteosarcoma. From historical information and data, ‘Osteo comes from the Greek word that means bone and a ‘sarcoma is the name that is given to cancers that begin in supporting or connective tissues, like fat, bone, blood vessels, cartilage, and muscle. Most of the Osteosarcoma cases come from a single area within the region of a long bone referred to as the (meta-FEE-sis) metaphysis. The meta-FEE-sis contains the area of the bone where cells are developing and dividing, this is referred to as the epi-FEE-see-al (epiphyseal) plate. The lengthy bones of the carcass are the bones that are considered being very much longer than they are wide. For instance the bones of the limbs, (femur) thigh bone of the (humerus) upper arm bone. Rarely can Osteosarcoma start in more than a single bone at the same time; but if it happens, it is typically referred to as multifocal osteosarcoma. The tumor behaves in an aggressive way, which means it can spread quickly to the bloodstream through or from the bone into additional regions within the body. The most usual area of the body that it spreads to is the lungs. Osteosarcoma can additionally spread to other areas of the body quickly, patients require treatment for the whole body; this is usually referred to as a systematic treatment. X-ray: X-ray is done to the various organs of the body system. Bones are also reviewed under X-ray. The X-ray is an energy beam type that can

The Usefulness of Marketing for Media and Entertainment Companies such Essay

The Usefulness of Marketing for Media and Entertainment Companies such as Disney - Essay Example Another marketing strategy that entertainment companies have resulted to is using electronic advertising in animated billboards. An example is Sony which has chosen to advertising in the ever busy New York’s Times Square where it is sure to attract millions of consumers. This marketing strategy has ensured that all the people using Times Square on a daily basis will have the opportunity to experience the advertisement and long to have the Sony phone which means that the sales of the Sony products and hence continue growing the company (Beattie, 2013). Lastly the media and entertainment industries should embrace using social media to advertise. They can advertise their upcoming movies and programs or premier events on their social media pages as a way to notify many people as well as market their products to their consumers to purchase. This marketing strategy has been used by other industries including the airplane companies and the results have been evident in the increase in client base as well as ensuring consumer satisfaction (Vorvoreanu, et al. 2013). Media industry as well as the entertainment industry in general has been experiencing competition in the recent past and marketing is one of the ways to ensure they have gained competitive advantage in the busy industry. Marketing will provide a niche for the company that will decide to spend more in their marketing (Haupeet, 2012). Marketing is also essential because entertainment forms keeps on changing as technology changes. In order to ensure that people are keeping up with these changes and they embrace it as it comes, marketing is the best strategy to do this. If the marketing strategy used will be able to reach many people at once, it then means that these people will also be kept abreast with the changes and will embrace them without much criticism to go with it (Anderson, 2007). The other importance of marketing strategy for the media and entertainment industries is to encourage

Hang on for a smooth flight; Paragliding in the UK, an Organisational Essay

Hang on for a smooth flight; Paragliding in the UK, an Organisational and Consumer perspective - Essay Example ccomplish the following: (1) to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the current Hang gliding and Paragliding Industry in the United Kingdom of Great Britain; (2) to investigate key components in APCO’s marketing strategy which led to their perceived dominance in the market and; (3) to examine consumer’s perception and satisfaction with the current market situation. To achieve these objectives, the researcher would conduct a survey to fifty (50) respondents, 25 are new trainees and 25 are paragliding instructors. These respondents also went through a series of semi-structured interviews to clarify their answers in the survey. The results of this study proves that there is indeed an increase in the number of people who are into adventure sports such as paragliding despite the risks that come with these sports. It is because of this that they give so much importance to the reputation and marketing strategies of certain manufacturers so as to ensure their safety as they engage in sports which are accompanies by high risks. In the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the sport of Paragliding is gaining tremendous popularity as an essential part of both the aviation and adventure tourism industries. Without a doubt, it has significantly contributed to the rise of the aviation industry as one of the most important industries in the United Kingdom, generating about 10.2 billion pounds sterling, thus amounting to 1.4% of the Gross Domestic Product of the Country. At the same time, the aviation industry has opened a lot of job opportunities for the citizens of the UK. In fact, it has already been reported to have been directly employed by this particular industry. As one of the perceived substantial industries in the country, it has helped in supporting the vision of their government for a high-productivity economy (OEF, 1999). Without a doubt, the economic growth of the UK owes a lot to aviation. Firstly because it is a part of their transport infrastructure to which

Examining a Bussiness Failure Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Examining a Bussiness Failure - Research Paper Example The present study would try to analyse the organizational behaviour aspects that could be interrelated with the company’s failure in the recent years. This would include an analysis of the aspects of management, leadership as well as organizational structure towards the unfolding crisis that occurred in the organization. Leadership Leadership is perhaps one of the main drivers of a business. A business essentially thrives on the aspect of the vision of the leader of the organization. One of the main reasons for the crisis situation at Enron can be held accountable to the improper leadership of the organization. The lack of proper vision of the company’s leadership can be traced to the fact that its CEO Jeffrey Skilling resigned from the company that was just beginning to see the light of the crisis situation. Another interesting fact was that the CEO while putting down his papers did not cite reasons for resignation which reflected the negative mindset and lack of leade rship skills of the leader of the organization (Jickling, 2002, p.2). An effective leader in this case could have saved the organization from the crisis that has led to the eventual downfall of the company. An effective leader should have realised the malpractices in the company and should have taken corrective measures and should have displayed visionary traits that could have saved the organization. The role theory of leadership states that leaders must act in a manner so as to set goals for others (Changing Minds.org, 2011). The case at Enron reflects a bad picture as the leader displayed complete lack of responsibilities as he left the firm when it was in the midst of a severe crisis and set a very bad role example. Management The management of an organization comprises of the top management board including the top shareholders and the top executive management of the company. The poor state of management of the organization can be easily identified from its actions as the top ma nagement reflected its existence only on paper. The management indulged in corrupt malpractices that ultimately led to the downfall of the organization (Worldlink, 2007, p.2). The top management of the organization defected from its basic responsibility of ensuring compliance in corporate management in an attempt to protect the interests of the existing shareholders of the firm. The top management showed a complete mismanagement as it allowed the CFO of the organization to allow him to do private based partnerships for undertaking business with the organization that was largely against the basic rules of corporate governance. The management of the organization was largely selected through internal preferences where the executive management had a final say. Independent directors largely acted as puppets of the top management of the organization that largely defeated the basic purpose of having independent directors on the board of an organization. Enron should have followed the corpo rate governance ethics and the management should not have been allowed to have a say on the appointment of independent directors. If the company had adopted a democratic and impartial selection of the independent directors, then the malpractices would have been identified long before and would have

Classical Music Concert Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Classical Music Concert Report - Essay Example Each of the pieces from the performance was composed in March 1941 by Benjamin Britten. Different pieces of the performance included symphony and orchestral pieces. Each of the pieces from the performance was written to provide entertainment to the audiences. In addition, the compositions also meant to portray the meaning of opera in the lives of the people (Boosey & Hawkes, â€Å"Benjamin Britten†). In terms of the composer’s background, it is observed that Benjamin Britten was one of the most broadly performed British 20th century composers who studied at Royal College of Music. He founded a new English-language opera convention. His major works comprise invaluable offerings related to opera and the various components that are associated with the creation of symphonic music. Benjamin Britten was born on 22nd November 1913. He passed away at the age of 63 on 4th December 1976. Benjamin Britten belonged to an era in which the concept of classical music was quite widespr ead and consequently he received much admiration. In the era, audiences were able obtain a number of classic pieces of compositions in numerous musical concerts (Boosey & Hawkes, â€Å"Benjamin Britten†). The composer i.e. Benjamin Britten represented a great source of influence on many contemporaries. He had been and still is regarded as one of the great sources of inspiration to many classical music artists namely Percy Grainger among others. His music also inspired the young audiences (Boosey & Hawkes, â€Å"Benjamin

Ford and the World Automobile Industry Essay Example for Free

Ford and the World Automobile Industry Essay Changes in the structure of the auto industry The 1965-1972 automobile industry was a low competitive environment, and as a consequence was a profitable industry. Indeed, during this period: ?Industry rivalry was rather low: ?The automotive market was fragmented into separate national markets and the primary concern of manufacturers was their domestic sales. As a consequence only a few competitor were disputing each market. ?The supply was meeting the demand in a correct manner: the production could provide the number of vehicles bought each year, without a major over-capacity. As a consequence, fixed costs were â€Å"under control†; no manufacturer was trying to gain market share in order to spread fixed costs over sales volume. ?Car models were much more differentiated that during the 2000’s. Several technologies were used in the various models available. As a consequence, models were considered as more unique by customer, hence a weaker tendency to switch between manufacturers. ?Suppliers power was almost inexistent, as manufacturer were much â€Å"vertical integrated†, to reduce costs and increase flexibility. Oil price was not a concern, with barrel under $15 during the whole period (expressed in 2006 US $). With no environmental concern, the substitution threat was very low. ?Low competition in national market and high capital costs were mainly responsible for the low threat of new entrant in each local market. Moreover markets were far from being global, notably due to the transportation problems, which were on the verge to be so lved : becoming global would have required at that time to completely reinvent the production process, as shipping components would have been excessively complex. Between 1972 and the beginning of the 2000’s, the world automobile market has faced a major upheaval, which primarily is due to one major phenomenon: â€Å"globalization†. The GATT and other international agreement have provided a framework for global trades, including the automobile industry. Moreover the slow growth rates of the industry provided incentives for manufacturer to look for new markets. This resulted in a major shift in the industry structure: ?The competition intensified during the period, The introduction of completely new manufacturers of market that used to be stable: the new production, management and transportation methods gave a boost to the competition atmosphere. ?Excess capacities were added during the 80’s and 90’s, when Japanese companies tried to enter foreign markets (and most notably the US), resulting in high fixed costs that had to be covered. This high fixed costs problem was reinforced by the rising new models development c osts. ?Car model standardization induces less differentiation, hence an easier customer switch between manufacturers. Moreover the fact markets have globally the same structure among different countries (luxury car/SUV/salient/low-cost cars) make it easy to compete around the world. ?Consumers have been requiring more â€Å"esthetic† personalization, requiring more flexibility in the manufacturing technology. That has reduced the benefits of economies of scale. ?New entrants have appeared and are still threatening to enter. Despite the major capital requirements to enter the automobile industry, several new competitors have emerged on each market segment during the last 40 years. On the one hand, developing countries have created national manufacturers, often protected by their own legislation before deciding to go global. On the other hand, existing multinational do have the cash required to enter new segment market, as the SUV example shows. ?The suppliers bargaining power has had a tendency to rise, and more and more manufactured decided to outsource the component manufacturing. This is reinforced by the fact that several component supplies have become as big as automotive manufacturers. Buyers have never been so well informed about models, performance, security concerns and innovation. As a consequence, major manufacturer have to constantly integrate new technologies into their cars, resulting in major costs. The automobile industry has undergone major changes in 40 years. The major increase in competition due to globalization, the industry structural changes and consumer evolution has made it much more difficult to generate profit. 2. Next 5 years struct ure changes? Observing the current automobile industry, one can try to predict some major trends that will characterize the future market. Competition will probably intensify above the current level, with several emerging countries on the verge of entering the world market (e. g. Tata Motors from India and Chery Automotive Company from China – see [3]). As a consequence, new major plants will probably being built by those new competitors, to provide the market with their own model, while existing leader will go on building their own on growing markets. So excess capacity will last. The price on war resulting will probably induce industry concentration, which will be divided into two different categories: on the one hand, one can predict mergers and acquisition, as it has existed until now, resulting in fewer competitors. On the other hand, closing of brands owned by international companies are likely to happen, because their profitability plummeted due in particular to lack of investment . From the customer point of view, several trends are to be noticed. First customer all over the world will become more and more concerned about environment. This problem along with the high oil price will force manufacturer to develop models consuming less gasoil, or using alternative energy sources. As a consequence, new model development prices are likely to get higher that now, requiring major investment. Second selling model to developing countries and lowering purchasing power in the western countries will provide incentive the develop new small and cheap models. 3. Future profits? As a consequence, it is likely that the industry will be less profitable during the next 5 years: intense price competition, heavy investment, major flexibility required by customers’ changing demand and personalization requirement will force manufacturer to lower their costs and profit as much as possible. 4. Successful companies As seen above, future leaders on the automobile industry will have to be: ?Able to face major investment costs, with available cash flow and not suffering from major high production costs, including for example the healthcare and retirement problem the 3 major US manufacturers are facing. Able to reduce prices as much as possible, by offshoring, reducing wages, automation and innovation in production management. ?Able to flexibly adapt their models to the demand. That requires production adaptation as well as deep understanding of the local markets, notably through a strong retail network. However, the evolution of transportation conditions and wages in developing countries (see [5]) will provide incentives for â€Å"near shoring†. Companies from BRIC countries will not as a consequence benefit from better costs conditions on their own countries, despite the developing costs will be under control. Moreover, developing an efficient retail network within 5 year is very strong challenge. To conclude, the companies that are likely to succeed on the world automobile industry during the next 5 years are production efficient and huge companies, which have already entered the major world markets and solved their major cost issues. 5. Ford solutions Where considering the three majors key points exposed above answering question 4, it can be deduced that Ford will have to face important issues to keep its position on the international automobile industry, especially with the new entrant threats. As a consequence, one major issue that Ford will have to address is the healthcare and retirements plans that lie in its balance sheet, and degrade its capacity to invest. Some great negotiation will unions will consequently have to occur. General Motors show a path during the year 2008 that could be used by Ford as well. As pressure on costs will still be prevalent, Ford will have to adapt its production tool. Some great effort on flexibility will have to be made, to be able to quickly react to the customer changing needs. May new factories need to be built, they should be placed near shore their target market. This strategy will allow cost reduction as well as adaptations to the local markets, which always show some important differences even if the market structure is often the same. To reduce costs, Ford will probably have to reduce its brands portfolio (for example to 3 or 4 brands in the US), to cover the whole industry market while lowering developing model costs and keeping fixed costs under control. Finally, one important point would be to get more important control over distribution channel, as it is a greater profitable industry that the manufacturer industry. Moreover, it appears from some analysis (see [8]) that the added value is mostly located into that area: customer can feel the differentiation there rather than on the pure manufactory area.

Threats To Darkroom Workers

Threats To Darkroom Workers In terms of exposure to harmful chemicals, darkroom workers and hobbyists are often in a worse position than chemical workers. Darkroom workers, especially hobbyists, normally receive no training in the proper use of chemicals. Perhaps the main reason for this laxity is that photo chemicals are generally regarded as safe by the photographic community. Many photographers think that since most photo chemicals are diluted before use that the danger is low. But most photographers lack the knowledge necessary to make decisions about chemical exposure. This is shown in the lack of precautions that most photographers take; many immerse themselves, literally, in their solutions and advise their students to do the same. Contact with high levels of some photo chemicals can lead to acute problems such as burns, dermatitis, dizziness, vomiting, asphyxiation and central nervous system failure. Long-term, low-level exposure can result in chronic problems such as allergic reactions, headaches, depression, lung ailments and cancer. Individuals vary in their responses to chemicals; some are more susceptible to adverse reactions than others. Reactions also depend on the concentrations of the chemicals and the conditions under which they are used. The greatest danger to darkroom workers and hobbyists is through the inhalation of powders or vapors. Additionally, most chemicals in the darkroom are liquids in open trays or tanks which increases the chance for spills. Absorption through the skin is also easy if the photographer routinely handles chemical-covered films or prints. Most darkroom workers seem to rely on the rule of thumb if I can tolerate the odor, the ventilation is adequate. But there are dangers from inoffensive chemicals that arent offensive: what you cant smell CAN hurt you! www.subclub.org/darkroom/safety.htm INTRODUCTION The Trinidad and Tobago Police Service or TTPS is the law enforcement agency of Trinidad and Tobago and has been in operation for over 200 years. One of the specialization within the Service was the introduction of plain-clothes officers in 1862 to assist in crime fighting during. Included in this section is the Photography department one of the specialist section whose function is to photograph the scene of crimes, serious accidents and any material relating to the commission of a crime or incident. This includes the photographing of fingerprints and questioned documents in order to preserve evidence of value in the process of crime investigation or presentation before the courts. Persons coming into custody of the Police and those participating in riots and demonstrations are also photographed for evidence of infractions of the law. These highly trained officers gain their expertise by participating in courses provided by senior officers and at international agencies. http://www.ttps.gov.tt This study focuses on the Hazards associated with the photography department in the Trinidad and Tobago Police Service. No research was found on the topic in Trinidad and Tobago, however, international agencies, such as the University of Florida and Kodak International and other agencies have put systems in place to protect photographers, darkroom enthusiast and other persons from hazards that they may encounter in the dark rooms. Dark Rooms are an official part of the Trinidad and Tobago Police Service. They are used for developing images after processing scenes of crimes. The crime scene is photographed to record a vivid understanding of what the scene looked like and to record items of possible evidence. Crime scene photographs are normally taken in two groupings, overall views and items of evidence. http://www.feinc.net/cs-proc. Photographers play an important role in the entire Police service of Trinidad and Tobago. Most of the work is carried out in a Photographic Lab which is commonly called the Dark Room. The photographer, or more specifically the crime scene photographer, must know how to create an acceptable image that is capable of withstanding challenges in court. These photographs are seen by Judges, Magistrates, Lawyers and Jurors, fellow officers and witnesses. It is commonly said that a picture paints a thousand words, however, the technical aspects are unknown to our fellow Officers and other Civilian members. The Police photographer operates in the front line and the greatest feats are spent behind the scenes. Photographers are not taken seriously as everyone now owns a camera and play the role of amateur photographers; they are further disrespected by being called photo take outers. The assumption is they click away and wolla photograph appears like magic. There are numerous hazards associated with dark rooms and wet photography. Photography uses three basic chemicals in the processing of light sensitive materials. The first chemical is called Developer. The developer detects changes in the silver salt in the emulsion of the film or paper and turns those that have been struck by light into metallic silver. The second chemical is stop bath and is used to stop the developer from working any longer. Plain water is sometimes used for this step. The final chemical is fixer. It fixes the film or paper so that it is no longer sensitive to light. It dissolve the unexposed silver salt from the light sensitive emulsion while leaving the metalic silver in tact. Fixer will, however, bleach the metalic silver if left in contact for a long enough period of time. Finally wash the emulsion to remove the dissolved unexposed silver salt as well as all the fixer residue. Chemical Safety scphoto.com/html/chemicals.html It is noted that persons working in the department today and persons who have worked in the department before are not made aware of some of the chemical composition and their hazards. Long hours are spent in the lab with the pungent odour. The author will examine the systems in place to effectively minimize and control the inhalation of chemicals. 1.1 JUSTIFICATION/ RATIONALE This research provides for an investigation into the reasons, why the Police Photographers are not sensitized to the hazards and risks they are prone to daily. What the effects of the various hazards pose when they are not prepared; and what makes them most vulnerable than their peers. The photography department consists of Forty four persons inclucive of men and women Police officers whose services are shared throughout the country inclusive of Tobago Division. They are also called upon to provide service by the various branches and sections within the Police Service. The photography department of the Northern Division has an office space which measures 6 feet by 13 feet in size, and contains three office desks a refrigerator, two filing cabinets and one overhead cupboard. The dark room area measures 6 feet by 9 feet, has a counter 4 ½ feet in height by 3 feet in length, a sink, a photographic enlarger and two filing cabinets. The dark room is situated nearby (at the back of the office), this area is where the negatives and the printing of photographs are done. The close proximity of the dark room where chemicals are being used emits a pungent odour into the office area. The photographers work in the scented office over a long period of time as such, they are immune to the scent. A vague awareness becomes evident when other fellow officers visit the office and remarks are made about the scent to which the photographers are oblivious to. The hazards and risk of injuries can be attributed to a number of factors such as: Physical hazards Injury, as a result of accidental contact, spillage, or inhalation of darkroom chemicals. Slips, trips, and falls, cramped spaces, surfaces made slippery by spilled liquids and the movement of heavy tripod. Chemical hazards Exposure to a wide variety of photographic chemicals and their vapours and fumes Ergonomic Eye strain as a result of moving frequently from the dark or semi-dark into strong light. Increase in crimes means frequent visits to crime scenes which in turn, mean long hours in the dark room. The officers have not yet experienced any major disaster or injury, however; subtle changes have been noticed, mentioned and simply brushed aside. This study is appropriate to generate findings which should result in the implementation of Administrative and Engineering Controls. The Police Photography Department is of paramount importance, it is imperative that the working conditions and the health and safety of the photographers be looked into. Section 6 (1) (12) of the OSH Act 2006 it shall be the duty of every employer to ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the safety and health and welfare at work of all his employees. 1.2 AIMS To determine the risks and hazards associated with working in the Police Photography Laboratory in Trinidad and Tobago. 1.3 OBJECTIVES The objective of this study is to determine the following: To determine the level of volatile organic compounds present in the working environment. To determine the adverse health effects associated with exposure to the VOCs To ascertain whether there are systems in place to deal with exposures and disposal of chemicals. To determine compliance with OSH Act of No 3 of 2006 and compare other legislations and regulations. 1.4 METHODOLOGY A research was conducted in order to obtain the literature on the relevant title Questionnaires will be distributed within the department as it relates to the project Multirae tester will be used to measure the Voc, Ammonia Sulpha Dioxide and Oxygen levels. 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are emitted as gases from certain solids or liquids. VOCs include a variety of chemicals, some of which may have short- and long-term adverse health effects. Concentrations of many VOCs are consistently higher indoors (up to ten times higher) than outdoors. VOCs are emitted by a wide array of products numbering in the thousands. Examples include: paints and lacquers, paint strippers, cleaning supplies, pesticides, building materials and furnishings, office equipment such as copiers and printers, correction fluids and carbonless copy paper, graphics and craft materials including glues and adhesives, permanent markers, and photographic solutions. www.epa.gov/iaq/voc.html Toxicity of substances Toxicity is the ability of a substance to produce injury once it reaches a site on or in the body. The degree or harmful effect which a substance can have depends on the inherent harmful properties and the route and speed of entry in the body. Exposure may be short term (acute effect) or after long or repeated exposure (chronic effect). (Holt, St John Allan) What makes the substance toxic is the quantity, concentration, duration of exposure, the physical state of the material its affinity for human tissue and sensitivity to attack human tissue or organs. Routes of entry How do hazardous agents get into the body? The diagram of the human body below illustrates the effects when it is exposed to the outside world through a variety of surfaces. These include the skin, lungs, nose, mouth and the digestive, urinary, and genital tracts. Hazardous agents (e.g. chemicals and micro-organisms such as bacteria and viruses) can get into the body through any of these surfaces. The most common routes of entry are: (a) through the lungs (inhalation) (b) through the skin (absorption) (c) through the mouth (ingestion). http://actrav.itcilo.org/ http://actrav.itcilo.org/actrav-english/telearn/osh/body/body1.gif actrav.itcilo.org Health Effects There are several factors from Particulate Matter that contribute to adverse health effect s. According to World Health Organization (WHO) PM affects more people than any other pollutant. The major components of PM are sulfate, nitrates, ammonia, sodium chloride, carbon, mineral dust and water. It consists of a complex mixture of solid and liquid particles of organic and inorganic substances suspended in the air. The particles are identified according to their aerodynamic diameter, as either PM10 (particles with an aerodynamic diameter smaller than 10  µm) or PM2.5 (aerodynamic diameter smaller than 2.5  µm). The latter are more dangerous since, when inhaled, they may reach the peripheral regions of the bronchioles, and interfere with gas exchange inside the lungs. www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs313/en/index.html The Environmental Protection Agency discusses the ability of organic chemicals to cause health effects varies greatly from those that are highly toxic, to those with no known health effect. As with other pollutants, the extent and nature of the health effect will depend on many factors including level of exposure and length of time exposed. Eye and respiratory tract irritation, headaches, dizziness, visual disorders, and memory impairment are among the immediate symptoms that some people have experienced soon after exposure to some organicsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Many organic compounds are known to cause cancer in animals; some are suspected of causing, or are known to cause, cancer in humans. Eye, nose, and throat irritation; headaches, loss of coordination, nausea; damage to liver, kidney, and central nervous system. Key signs or symptoms associated with exposure to VOCs include conjunctival irritation, nose and throat discomfort, headache, allergic skin reaction, dyspnea, declines in seru m cholinesterase levels, nausea, emesis, epistaxis, fatigue, dizziness. http://www.epa.gov/iaq/voc.html body6.gif (328222 bytes) The following are recommend revised limits for the concentration of selected air pollutants on Particulate matter from WHO 2005 Air Quality Guidelines : Guideline values PM2.5 10 ÃŽÂ ¼g/m3 annual mean 25 ÃŽÂ ¼g/m3 24-hour mean PM10 20 ÃŽÂ ¼g/m3 annual mean 50 ÃŽÂ ¼g/m3 24-hour mean Ozone (O3) Guideline values O3 100 ÃŽÂ ¼g/m3 8-hour mean The previously recommended limit, which was fixed at 120 ÃŽÂ ¼g/m3 8-hour mean, has been reduced to 100 ÃŽÂ ¼g/m3 based on recent conclusive associations between daily mortality and ozone levels occurring at ozone concentrations below 120  µg/m3. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Guideline values NO2 40 ÃŽÂ ¼g/m3 annual mean 200 ÃŽÂ ¼g/m3 1-hour mean The current WHO guideline value of 40  µg/m3 (annual mean) set to protect the public from the health effects of gaseous NO2 remains unchanged from the level recommended in the previous AQGs. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Guideline values SO2 20 ÃŽÂ ¼g/m3 24-hour mean 500 ÃŽÂ ¼g/m3 10-minute mean A SO2 concentration of 500  µg/m3 should not be exceeded over average periods of 10 minutes duration. Studies indicate that a proportion of people with asthma experience changes in pulmonary function and respiratory symptoms after periods of exposure to SO2 as short as 10 min EXPOSURE LIMITS The airborne exposure limits established by OSHA include: Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL): The allowable limit that is representative of a workers exposure, averaged over an 8-hour day. Short-term Exposure Limit (STEL): The allowable limit that is representative of a workers exposure, averaged over 15 minutes. ACGIH is a professional organization whose members work within the government or academia. This organization annually publishes a booklet entitled Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents and Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs). ACGIH TLVs are exposure guidelines and do not have the effect of law. These values change in response to new data and are usually more rapidly updated than OSHA limits.The Threshold Limit Value (TLV) refers to airborne concentrations of substances and represents conditions under which it is believed that nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed day after day without adverse health effects. The ACGIH TLVs include: Threshold Limit Value-Time- Weighted Average (TLV-TWA): The time-weighted average concentration for a normal 8-hour workday and a 40- hour work week, to which nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed, day after day, without adverse effect. http://www.hse.gov.uk/coshh/oel.pdf Disposal of Chemicals According to the University of Florida disposal procedures of darkrooms photo chemicals with a pH of less than or equal to 2 or greater than or equal to 12.5 can be disposed of down the drain. Therefore, developer (alkaline) and stop bath (acidic) may be combined in a container (with good ventilation) to neutralize the solutions (pH 7) and make it nonhazardous. Then the combined solution can be disposed of down the sink. Fixers cannot be placed down the sink because of silver and other heavy metals content. These chemicals can be combined into one container and must have a Hazardous Waste Label on it. All unused, concentrated photographic materials must be handled by EHS as a hazardous waste. Photographers should never put any hazardous (or even potentially hazardous) materials down the drain without explicit permission According to Michael McCann the disposal of old or unused concentrated photographic chemical solutions, developer, stop baths, fixing baths, and other solutions should be treated as hazardous waste. To dispose of photographic wastes, label them with a hazardous waste tag, store them in secondary containment and submit a waste pickup request. Fixers contain some silver, which must be treated or recovered before it can be disposed of. There are two options available for recycling this material: Have a commercial company service your photographic needs (typically keeping your developer and fixer stocked and your waste removed), or have EHS collect the waste. EHS is permitted to treat. It is important to remember that when handling fixers, developer, or other photographic products that proper Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) be worn at all times. Kodak literature on Disposal of Processing Wastes guidelines are to direct discharge of untreated processing effluents to receiving water, or to surface drains or storm sewers that discharge directly to receiving waters, is not recommended or lawful. Septic tanks are biological systems, but are not recommended for disposal of photographic processing wastes. Septic tanks may not degrade wastes sufficiently. They are generally designed for small volumes, produce odorous products, cannot be installed in all locations, and may contaminate ground waters. Aerated lagoons have been used successfully by some processors to pre-treat their wastes to lower the oxygen demand before discharging them into a municipal treatment system. The University of Florida, Michael McCann and Kodak Literature in their research all agreed that photochemical disposal should be treated as hazardous waste. Hazardous waste or even potentially hazardous materials should never be poured down the drain. The University of Florida labels the hazardous waste and Contacts the Environmental Health and Safety Department who is permitted to treat hazardous waste. Both, The University of Florida and Michael McCann suggest the services of the EHS department. Kodak in their findings suggests an aerated lagoon. Hazard pictograms GHS The following labels are found on the packages of the fixer, and developers.For the labelling based on the Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 (CLP Regulation, GHS), the following hazard pictograms have to be used according to the classification of the substances or preparations (mixtures). http://www.bag.admin.ch/anmeldestelle/00933/12871/index.html?lang=enimage=NHzLpZeg7t,lnp6I0NTU042l2Z6ln1ad1IZn4Z2qZpnO2Yuq2Z6gpJCKeIR_fWym162bpYbqjKbNpJyZlq7p Pictogram GHS05 Symbol: corrosion Hazard class and hazard category Corrosive to metals, hazard category 1 Skin corrosion, hazard categories 1A, 1B, 1C Serious eye damage, hazard category 1 http://www.bag.admin.ch/anmeldestelle/00933/12871/index.html?lang=enimage=NHzLpZeg7t,lnp6I0NTU042l2Z6ln1ad1IZn4Z2qZpnO2Yuq2Z6gpJCKeIR_g2ym162bpYbqjKbNpJyZlq7p Pictogram GHS06 Symbol: skull and crossbones Hazard class and hazard category http://www.bag.admin.ch/anmeldestelle/00933/12871/index.html?lang=enimage=NHzLpZeg7t,lnp6I0NTU042l2Z6ln1ad1IZn4Z2qZpnO2Yuq2Z6gpJCKeXt2g2ym162bpYbqjKbNpJyZlq7p Pictogram GHS09 Symbol: environment Hazard class and hazard category Hazardous to the aquatic environment Acute hazard category 1 Chronic hazard categories 1, 2 http://www.bag.admin.ch 3.0 Hierachy of Control Measures While systems of control should be as effective as it is practicable to make them, it is desirable to have some guide to which the efficiency of control can be related For each substance a figure of concentration in atmosphere is given. If this concentration is exceeded, further action is necessary to achieve satisfactory working conditions (MoL, 1960) Authors emphasis {pg 12} http://www.hse.gov.uk/coshh/oel.pdf The following control measures should be utilize to reduce exposure levels to (as low as reasonable practicable ) ALARP 3.1 1. Elimination The best way to control a hazard is to eliminate it and remove the danger. This can be done by changing a work process in a way that will get rid of a hazard; substituting a non-toxic chemical for a toxic substance; having workers perform tasks at ground level rather than working at heights. 2. Substitution The second best way to control a hazard is to substitute something else in its place that would be non-hazardous or less hazardous to workers. For example, a non-toxic (or less toxic) chemical could be substituted for a hazardous one. Isolation and enclosure of the process can be achieved by the use of physical barriers, or by relocation of processes and/or facilities. Local exhaust Ventilation (LEV is achieved by trapping the contaminant close to its source, and removing it directly by purpose built ventilation prior to its entry into the breathing zone of the operator or the atmosphere. LEV have four parts: Hood, Ducting, Air purifying device eg charcoal filtrs to prevent further pollution and Fans to move air through the system. The efficiency of LEV is affected by draughts capture hood design and dimensions, air velocityachieved and distance of capture point from source. General or Dilution Ventilation uses natural air movement through open doors or assisted ventilation by roof fans, or blowers to dilute the contaminant. It should only be considered if; There is a small quantity of contaminant. The contaminant is produced uniformly in the area. The contaminant material is of low toxicity. Housekeeping lessens the likelihood of accidental contact with a contaminant. It includes measures to anticipate and handle spillages and leaks of materials, and minimize quantities in open use. Reduced exposure time to a contaminant may be appropriate, provided that the possible harmful effect of the dose rate is taken into account, i.e high levels of exposure for short periods of time may be damaging. Training should emphasise the importance of using the control measures provided, and give an explanation of the nature of the hazard which may be present together with the precautions which individuals need to take. Personal Protective Equipment and Clothing may be used where it is possible to reduce the risk of injury sufficiently using the above control strategies. In that case suitable protective equipment must be used. http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcT8a2gMMIEgccZST4or753KegN5brXR6Kenuv4NRA9Y2UnB8qXw designconsiderationsfig7.gif sebastiandarkroom.com http://ts1.mm.bing.net/th?id=I.4506898942199372pid=15.1 gloves give your hands protection lab coat to protect your clothing condrenrails.com According to literature from Hawaii art photography 2006 handout, which deals with safe and healthful Dark room practices, states that the hazards of the Developer and the Fixer are skin and eye irritants. They can cause allergic reaction and allergic sensitivity, especially hazardous in the stock mixing stage. The precautions given are: To mix stock solutions wear goggles, gloves and respirator or dust mask. Use gloves when mixing working solutions. Avoid skin contact with powders and solution. Concentrate is highly toxic by skin contact, inhalation or ingestion. Continued inhalation of working solution can cause severe sinusitis and bronchitis. http://www.hawaii.edu In the literature from Photographic Processing Hazards by Michael McCann, Ph.D., C.I.H states that the Developer solutions and powders are often highly alkaline, and glacial acetic acid, used in making the stop bath, is also corrosive by skin contact, inhalation and ingestion. Developer powders are highly toxic by inhalation and moderately toxic by skin contact, due to the alkali and developers themselves. The developers may cause methemoglobinemia, an acute anaemia resulting from converting the iron of haemoglobin into a form that cannot transport oxygen. Fatalities and severe poisonings have resulted from ingestion of concentrated developer solutions. The precautions are to use liquid chemistry whenever possible, rather than mixing developing powders. Pregnant women, in particular, should not be exposed to powdered developer. When mixing powdered developers, use a glove box (a cardboard box with glass or plexiglas top, and two holes in the sides for hands and arms), local exhaust ventilation, or wear a NIOSH-approved toxic dust respirator. In any case, there should be dilution ventilation (e.g. window exhaust fan) if no local exhaust ventilation is provided. Wear gloves, goggles and protective apron when mixing concentrated photo chemicals. An eyewash fo untain and emergency shower facilities should be available. Fixing baths contain sodium thiosulphate (hypo) as the fixing agent, and sodium sulphite and sodium bisulphite as a preservative. Fixing baths also may also contain alum (potassium aluminium sulphate) as a hardener and boric acid as a buffer. www.trueart.info/photography.htm The University of Florida literature on photographic materials; safety issues and procedures outlines that the developer solutions and powders are often highly alkaline and are moderately to highly toxic. They are also sources of the most common health problems in photography; skin disorders and allergies. Developers are skin and eye irritants and many are strong allergic sensitizers. Some common ingredients in developers are hydroquinone and sodium sulphite. Hydroquinone can cause de pigmentation and eye injury after five or more years of repeated exposure, it is also a mutagen. Sodium sulphite decomposes to produce sulphur dioxide (a toxic gas), when heated or allowed to stand for a long time in water or acid. Precautions are to ensure good ventilation of the darkroom. At least, 10 air changes per hour. Wear gloves and goggles. If a splash occurs, flush affected areas (15-20 minutes for eyes) immediately with water using an eyewash or safety shower. Solutions are should be covered when not in use to prevent evaporation or release of toxic vapours and gases. Fixer contains sodium thiosulphate, sodium sulphite and sodium bisulphite. It may also contain potassium aluminium sulphate as a hardener and boric acid as a buffer. Fixer solutions slowly release sulphur dioxide gas as they age. However, when these solutions are contaminated with acid from the stop bath, the gas sulphur dioxide is released at a more rapid rate. http://www.ehs.ufl.edu The use of Personal Protective Equipment is of great importance to the three institutions. The researchers found in their findings and agreed that the Developer and Fixer that is used in the photography lab are highly toxic and are skin and eye irritants. They all emphasize goggles and gloves, eye wash fountains and emergency showers. Michael McCann included the use of an apron while mixing chemicals. Michael McCann and the University of Florida go in-depth into the various chemical compositions and the danger they pose. There was a slight variation on the type of ventilation system which should be installed; however, the important factor here is that one should be place. He also added information on mixing powdered developers in a glove box. Precautions given are to wear goggles, gloves and respirator or dust mask. According to Kodak guidelines on the safe handling of processing chemicals, all chemicals have MSDS. MSDSs are provided for customers for all photographic processing chemicals which are clearly outlined: Photographic processing facilities are required by OSHA to have MSDSs for all hazardous chemicals. MSDSs provide detailed information about each product. Information included in MSDSs is outlined in the following categories: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ chemical and manufacturer identification à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ composition/ingredients à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ hazard identification à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ first-aid measures à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ fire-fighting measures à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ accidental release measures à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ handling and storage The University of Florida outlines storage handling and general housekeeping which is documented in the updated MSDS on all chemicals used in the developing of film. These sheets must be kept in a binder and be available at all times. Keep the darkroom and other work areas uncluttered and eliminate trip hazards by not storing items on the floor. Wet and dry areas should be clearly separated. Liquid chemicals are to be stored off the floor, by compatibility and below shoulder height. Do not eat, smoke or drink in the storage room, darkroom or studio. The darkroom should be well ventilated with 10 to 20 air changes per hour. Using a pre-made liquid developer is safer than mixing powdered developers. If powdered chemicals must be mixed, do so in a fume hood or glove box. All darkrooms should have eyewash stations that connect to the water supply and use hands-free operation. Pregnant women, in particular, should not be exposed to powdered developer. Store concentrated acids and other co rrosive chemicals on low shelves so as to reduce the chance of face or eye damage in case of breakage and splashing. Kodak literature on photo chemicals safety, storage and general housekeeping alerts DO NOT store chemicals where you handle or store food. DO NOT eat, drink, or smoke in chemical-handling areas. Always wash your hands thoroughly after handling chemicals, especially before eating or drinking. Store corrosive materials away from any materials with which they may react, and away from other incompatible materials. See the stability and reactivity section on the MSDS for more information. The researcher found that The University of Florida notes that pregnant women, in particular, should not be exposed to powdered developers. Michael McCann also noted this hazard of the developer in his findi

Educational Software Reviews :: Essays Papers

Educational Software Reviews Software Titles reviewed here: 1) Elmo's Computer Phone 2) CD-ROM Suitcase 3) BusyTown Best Christmas Ever Elmo's Computer Phone Ages: 12 months - 3 years Price: $79.95 Distributor: Hilad 02 9700 9377 Publisher: Comfy Interactive Requirements: 486 DX, Win 95, 8 MB RAM, 4 X CD-ROM Rating: lllll Along with the Comfy keyboard this product is definitely the best tool to introduce children under three and a half years, to the joy of playing on a computer. It's also great for and all preschoolers who have not yet mastered mouse control. Using it is easy, you simply plug the phone in and move your keyboard to the side. The child operates the game displayed on the computer screen, by pressing buttons on the phone and listening to sound from the ear-piece and speaker. If you wish, the child can play using sound from the ear-piece only. This has the added advantage of reducing household noise. The game offers hours of enjoyable play for preschoolers and encourages them to recognize shapes, sounds, objects, colours, and body parts. They can play peek-a-boo, sing along and join Big Bird and Elmo in the activities they present. CD-ROM Suitcase Pic: BusyTo.bmp Ages: 3-7 years Price: $69.95 Distributor: Hilad 02 9700 9377 Publisher: Simon and Schuster Requirements: 486 DX, Win 95, 8 MB RAM, 4 X CD-ROM Macintosh: Power mac, System 7.1, 8 MB RAM, 4 X CD-ROM Rating: lllll Another bargain! This CD-ROM Suitcase from Simon and Schuster, contains 12 CD-ROMS for kids aged 3-7 years. Though these are older titles, there are enough top quality ones included to deliver top value for money. The disks include Richard Scarry's Busytown, How things Work in Busytown, How Many Bugs in a Box, More Bugs in Boxes, Alistair and the Alien Invasion, Earth 2U, Exploring Geography, Chicka Chicka Boom Boom, My Favourite Monster, Mooky Takes Manhattan, MacMillan Dictionary for Children and Road Construction Ahead. The most inappropriate game for Australia Money Town, features, US money. The other titles are of international interest however. Busytown for example giving kids practice in adding, subtracting, measuring, counting, patern matching, problem solving and early reading skills. Similarly 'How Things Work in Busytown' features eight activities that enable players to practice word recognition, vocabulary, pattern recognition, sequencing, community roles, problem solving, colour and counting skills in Busytown. 3) BusyTown Best Christmas Ever Pic: BestXmas.bmp Ages: 3-7 years Price: $49.95 Distributor: Hilad 02 9700 9377 Publisher: Simon and Schuster Requirements: Pentium 90, Win 95, 16 MB RAM, 4 X CD-ROM Macintosh: Power mac, System 7.1, 8 MB RAM, 4 X CD-ROM

We Must Stop Global Warming Essay -- Climate Change, 2015

"The most important thing about global warming is this....it's everyone's responsibility to leave this planet in better shape for the future generations than we found it." -- Mike Huckabee Over and over, skeptics, regulation-weary industries, and politically minded scientists have done their best to dispute the fact that the change in global temperature is not a natural occurrence. However, after decades of research and speculations, the advancement of technology has allowed us to prove that, without a doubt, climate change is occurring and that we are the ones responsible for this change. One of the most famous representations depicting anthropogenic contribution to global warming is the Keeling Curve. This curve shows the annual readings of CO2 from Mauna Loa,Hawaii since 1958 (read more at http://scrippsco2.ucsd.edu/history_legacy/early_keeling_curve). Alright, so we are causing climate change†¦now what? Every person on earth is in some way responsible for global warming, but who will be responsible for making it stop? There is no way for us to tackle this issue in an in...

hate speech :: essays research papers

Filtered Freedom Hate speech is often misunderstood because it can be classified as either careless or intentionally hurtful. Many people interpret careless statements as acts of aggression, but with good reason. It would be false to say that the freedom of speech has never been manipulated to inflict damage upon others. Questions have been risen of what hate speech is and if it should be allowed to be viewed by public access. Alan M. Dershowitz delivers an enumerative definition of the term by asserting all speech that criticizes another’s race, religion, gender, ethnicity, appearance, class, physical or mental capabilities, or sexual preference. However simply defining hate speech by listing out its various forms only amplifies its definition, but it fails to clarify. Vicki Chiang manages to provide a more analytical understanding of the term by listing the various forms of the act and addressing the effects upon all involved. Dershowitz’s list of hurtful instances of hate speech conv eys a definition of the term as a whole, but does not cover all forms hate speech. Hate speech is any action that conveys a critical perception of an opinion which criticizes a group in a harmful manner. By addressing all forms of hate speech and considering all involved it can be concluded that though such media is often viewed as offensive, it should not be censored by a legislative body that advocates freedom of speech. In a library, one should be allowed access to the records of the past in order to prepare for the future, despite the severity of the content. As a public place designed to encourage mental stimulation, obstruction of knowledge in a library is a sociological setback. Hindering a nation’s source of intellectual growth and the entire potential of the country, will inevitably do more harm than it can good. Though one may argue that the preservation of information regarding such events could inspire new acts of hate, the past will shed light on what to do in such situations. People need to understand why the statements made in the past did not always justify their actions. It is our cultural history that provides us with insight of what is just and what is prejudiced. Cultural values feed off freedom of expression, whether it is through censorship or the proclamation of beliefs and feelings. Such a liberty is the foundation of our country, and should not be obstructed in a place of common ground such as a library.

Pyramus and Thisbe Summary Essays and Term Papers Essay

Characters: Baldo – He was one of the main characters in the short story. He was Leon’s younger brother. Baldo was unperturbed man, and he was quiet. He was the narrator of the story. Leon – He was the oldest brother of Baldo. He was the husband of Maria. Maria called him Noel. Maria – She was a beautiful and lovely. Her forehead was on a level with his mouth, her nails were long, but they were not painted, and have a small dimple appeared momentarily high up on her right cheek. She was tall and very still. Her fragrance was like a morning when papayas are in bloom. Labang – The bull of Leon and Baldo. Father – He was mildest – tempered, gentlest man. He was the father of Baldo and Leon. Mother – He was the mother of Baldo and Leon. Aurelia – She was the sister of Baldo and Leon. Summary / Synopsis: Maria was a wife of Leon. She was lovely and beautiful. Her fragrant like a morning when papayas are in bloom. Leon was lived in far place of Nagrebcan. Leon brought Maria to Nagrebcan to introduce to his father. The couple enjoys talking while in traveled riding in the cart hitch to Labang. Baldo who is quiet and observing his brother and spouse. When they arrived home, Baldo went to the room of his father. The room is quiet and dark. His father was smoking while sat in the big armchair by the western window. And they talk about Maria. Afterwards the door opened, and Leon and Maria came in. Baldo looked to Maria and went out to watered Labang which his father told to him. Characterization: Baldo is the narrator of the story because he is the one who relates us what happened to the story. Were Baldo is the younger brother of Leon. Baldo is a quiet person. It is very detectable that Baldo is observing his brother Leon and spouse how is Maria. When his father asks him â€Å"Was she afraid of Labang?† Baldo lied and says â€Å"No, Father, she was not afraid.† Even though Maria afraid. It means that Baldo like Maria as a wife of Leon but inside, he also admires the beauty of Maria. In here, the main characters were the couple Leon and Maria. Leon has a strong personality because he did not afraid to present Maria to his father as her wife. He was very proud of Maria as her wife. Maria truly love Leon because she fight for what she  believe was right, it doesn’t matter if the world told her that it’s wrong. I could say that Maria and the mother of Leon plays and represent the Filipino women. The father of Baldo has a deep personality. He was a responsibly father because he use his righteous way as a head of the family. It only means that the father or the man is the authority. He doesn’t want Leon to go to the wrong way. So, he makes some trials to Maria trying to test Maria’s characteristic, her attitude, her looks, how she talks and the way she handle the situation. His mother was a responsibly mother. She does the light of the family and represents the Filipino women. Settings: The setting of the story was in Nagrebcan, Leon’s hometown. This story takes place in a farm where people would usually ride in carabao. The place was in the local province. In the story, Maria who was Leon’s wife described physically and with her posture as a conservative and traditionalist which would probably described as a Filipino woman. As an alternative, they took a shortcut in a field. In my opinion, one can visualize that there is some kind of a test for the two of them. Maria must surpass that trial. It was as there family of Leon is trying to test Maria’s characteristic, her attitude, her looks, how she talks and the way she handle the situation. Plot: The plot is compose of inciting action, rising action, climax, falling action, and conclusion. The inciting action was when â€Å"She stepped down to the Carretela of Ca Celin with a quick, delicate grace. She look lovely, she was tall. She looked up to my brother with a smile, and her forehead was on level with his mouth.† The rising action was when they took the dry bed of Waig as a substitute of passing the Camino Real and it was the wish of there father to go by Waig. The climax of the story was when Maria told Leon that she was afraid of his father in law maybe his father thinking of not liking her. The falling action came when Leon was searching for their father and her mother told them that his leg is bothering him again. The conclusion was when Baldo cross the threshold of his father and ask him about Maria. Afterwards the door opened and Leon and Maria came in. Baldo looked to Maria so lovely and went out to watered Labang which his father told him. Themes: The theme of the story is Love makes Maria and Leon go straight whatever  struggles come will be ignore to them. I don’t know if there relationship will last long because Maria is a city girl while Leon is a barrio boy. Reactions of the story: My reaction of the story is the story is good and it reflects to the modern youth even if the story is very old. I describe Maria as an example of Filipino women and also her attitude as a â€Å"mahinhin†. The couple Leon and Maria faces many trials while in traveled to Nagrebcan. Even though, Maria passed those trials. So, therefore Maria is very understanding kind of girl. The story talks about the characteristic of Maria, her attitude, her looks, how she talks and the way she handle the situation that riding a bull and passed through Waig. Therefore, basically a woman creates for men.

Why Did Franklin Delano Roosevelt Win the 1932

Why did Franklin D. Roosevelt win the 1932 presidential election? Franklin D. Roosevelt won the 1932 presidential election reasons. His margin of victory over Herbert Hoover was the largest in recorded history up to that time. One of the foremost reasons why Roosevelt won was because people believed that he could take America out of the Great Depression unlike Hoover. They believe he will take real action to deal with the Depression. His policies and ideals were much more popular and suitable for the situation they were in. Hoover believed in ‘rugged individualism’ where people should not expect help from the government and that the government will not interfere. Whereas Roosevelt promised his ‘New Deal’, which would provide jobs and relief for the poor, and the unemployed, action to help industry and agriculture and resolve the banking crisis. Roosevelt promised the government would help and starting funding charities and many construction projects, whereas under Hoover the government rarely funded relief programmes or charities, which relied on generous wealthy individuals and towns and cities. He believed the power of the government should be used to create a fairer society, bringing hope to many Americans. Also all Hoover promised in his election was that the USA had ‘turn the corner back to prosperity’ whereas Hoover had his ‘New Deal’, which seemed much more promising. Also when Hoover won his first term election he said that every American would have two cars in the garage and chicken in the pot. However, many people were now unemployed and homeless. Many people did not trust Hoover or his promises. However the main reason that Roosevelt triumphed over Hoover would be because he was immensely popular, his public image was much better. Hoover had the image of an uncaring heartless person, whereas Roosevelt was seen as a fighter, having fought polio and running as president even though paralysed waist down. Furthermore, what he had done for the ordinary people of New York as governor added to his caring image. Hoover had taken office shortly before the Crash. Many Americans blamed him for it and not doing enough. The way they conducted their campaigns were also vital. Roosevelt’s smile and optimism proved far more popular with the electorate than Hoover’s grim looks. Furthermore, Roosevelt got out to meet the people, toured around America far more than Hoover. People got to know him and he was willing to listen to their problems. There are many images of him talking and shaking hands with ordinary people. When talking to crowds he would mention ordinary individuals he had talked to and there problems – a woman with a baby, a miner, an old fellow†¦ This gave Roosevelt the image of someone who cares for the ordinary person, whereas Hoover didn’t seem interested in his or her problems. Moreover, since Hoover believed the economy would eventually recover by itself, therefore not providing much relief, it further added to Hoovers image of being uncaring and heartless, which is unfair because he eventually did take a little actions, but definitely not enough and was not seen as the right man for the task of bringing about a recovery. A crisis point was reached in the summer of 1932 where bonus marchers, people who fought in World War One, marched in Washington DC demanding their payment of $500. Hoover reacted badly to this, using tanks, the army and tear gas to disperse the marchers. Two of them died. Many people did not like how Hoover treated the people who risked their lives for their country. Furthermore, Roosevelt promised to bring end to the extremely unpopular prohibition of alcohol. People wanted a drink – free and legal. People were tired of all the problems Prohibition had caused – the gangsters, killings, crooked dealings by big businesses etc. Overall, Roosevelt’s proposed policies, optimistic attitude and smile, campaigning around the country, talking to listening to the ordinary person and his promise to end the unpopular prohibition was more than a match for Hoovers grim looks, uncaring and heartless image, ‘rugged individualism’ and the way he conducted his campaign. Hoover was not an evil man, however, he was not the right man to lead America and the world through the Great Depression. Roosevelt was extremely popular, had a great public image and relationship, and seen as the only person who could lead America out of the Depression.

Branches of Philosophy Essay

1. Logic Logic is the science and art of correct thinking. It attempts to codify the rules of rational thought. Logicians explore the structure of arguments that preserve truth or allow the optimal extraction of knowledge from evidence. Logic is one of the primary tools philosophers use in their inquiries; the precision of logic helps them to cope with the subtlety of philosophical problems and the often misleading nature of conversational language. 2. Ethics. Ethics is the study of the nature of right and wrong and good and evil, in terms both of considerations about the foundations of morality, and of practical considerations about the fine details of moral conduct. Moral philosophers may investigate questions as sweeping as whether there are such things moral facts at all, or as focused as whether or not the law ought to accord to rape victims the right to an abortion. 3. Metaphysics Metaphysics is the study of the nature of things. Metaphysicians ask what kinds of things exist, and what they are like. They reason about such things as whether or not people have free will, in what sense abstract objects can be said to exist, and how it is that brains are able to generate minds. 4. Epistemology Epistemology is the study of knowledge itself. Epistemologists ask, for instance, what criteria must be satisfied for something we believe to count as something we know, and even what it means for a proposition to be true. Epistemology is sometimes referred to as the â€Å"theory of knowledge. † 5. Axiology Axiology is philosophical the study of value; the investigation of its nature, criteria, and metaphysical status. More often than not, the term â€Å"value theory† is used instead of â€Å"axiology. † 6. Aesthetics Aesthetics is the study of value in the arts or the inquiry into feelings, judgments, or standards of beauty and related concepts. Philosophy of art is concerned with judgments of sense, taste, and emotion. Other Divisions of Philosophy 1. Philosophy of the Mind 2. Philosophy of the Person 3. Political Philosophy 4. Social Philosophy 5. Philosophy of Language 6. Philosophy of Science 7. Philosophy of Art 8. Philosophy of Language 9. Philosophy of Religion 10. Philosophy of Law 11. Philosophy of Education 12. Philosophy of History _______________________________ Cruz, Corazon L. 2005. Philosophy of man (third edition). Mandaluyong City: National bookstore Divisions and definition of philosophy. 2005. Available at http://philosophy. lander. edu/intro/what. shtml. Retrieved last November 8, 2010. Gripaldo, Rolando M. 2008. Philosophy, Sophism/Sophistry, and Pilosopo. Included in The philosophical landscape : A panoramic perspective on philosophy. Quezon City: C&E Publishing. Vuletic, Mark I. 2010. What is philosophy? Available at http://www. vuletic. com/hume/ph/philosophy. html. Accessed last November 8, 2010.

Sfl Genre Literature Review

CHAPTER II Travelling Uncharted Waters? REVIEWING THE LITERATURE 2. 1 Introduction: Storm in a teacup This part of my research journey was fraught with anxiety, distress and a sense of being lost. Reviewing the literature became my own storm in a teacup, as I found myself dizzily spiralling, being flung between not knowing on the one side, on the verge of knowing at the other, yet continuously feeling out of control, not being here nor there †¦ caught somewhere between locating, analysing, synthesising and reviewing the expert knowledge.Searching for literature and locating the literature, even with support, was a lonely road. Never have I felt that the more I began to read and know, the less I felt I knew, lost and alone amid so many theories, expert knowledge, data and findings. And so this genre journey became a rumbling of thoughts, ideas and theories to be summarised, referenced and sometimes even violently tossed aside. Reviewing the literature and writing up summaries was a cup of tea, yet I was slowly dissolving, losing my own voice and experiencing a sense of losing of my own identity.In robot-like fashion I found myself speaking and quoting studies done by experts in the field and then became aware of another storm brewing in my teacup: what miniscule contribution could I make? Would I be able to negotiate meaning for an expert audience in this genre field? Would I successfully structure the information according to issues pertinent to my research, and would I be able to identify themes that are linked to my research question?As I attempt to write, my teacup torments and reminds me again that I have become the echoing voice of experts. So during this process I am riding a storm of emotions, wondering whether I will remain a voiceless, writing wanderer, I wonder †¦ Yet, strangely losing my own voice, reminds me of our learners and teachers at school who face so many challenges with this process called writing. Reflecting on my literature, I p ondered putting to practice my knowledge of genre theory and this became one of my storm lanterns. Surely, esearching the merits of such a theory should provide me with tools to deconstruct and conquer this silly storm brewing in my tea cup? And so finally, as I begin to let go, embracing this brewing cup of storm, I am steadfastly sensing that many storm lanterns have and will guide me in finding a way to indicate to an expert audience my ability to identify, search, locate and present a coherent review of the literature. At this point the storm is still brewing, at times even raging, never fully abating but it is becoming lesser in intensity.And so, I am realising that this willy-nilly writing storm brewing in my teacup is someone else’s tornado and maybe both of these could be another writer’s cup of tea. This chapter attempts to draw on literature from genre theory, specifically genre theory based on Systemic Functional Linguistics. Hyland (2002) refers to a genre- based approach to teaching writing as being concerned with what learners do when they write. This includes a focus on language and discourse features of the texts as well as the context in which the text is produced.My primary intention is to explore the literature on different approaches to teaching writing and more specifically in what ways a genre-based approach to teaching writing could facilitate the development of writing skills at a multilingual primary school. 2. 1. 2 Framing the problem Success after school, whether it is at a tertiary institution or in the world of work, is largely dependent on effective literacy skills. To succeed one has to display a range of communicative skills, for example, listening, speaking, reading and writing tasks.But, most importantly, the quality of one’s writing determines access to higher education and well paid jobs in the world of work. In these scenarios, success or entry is dependent on either passing an English writing proficienc y test or on the skill of writing effective reports. However, writing skills are even essential in the most general forms of employment, for example, waitressing necessitates writing down customer orders and working at a switchboard implies taking messages, writing down memos or notes.Therefore, learning to write at school should be synonymous with learning and acquiring the formats and demands of different types of texts necessary in broader society. On this point, Kress (1994) argues that language, social structures and writing are closely linked. The written language taught at school reflects the more affluent social structures and thus the standard written variants are deemed more acceptable by society.However, the kind of writing taught and valued at school , that is, poetry, literature and essays is mastered by a very few learners and the control of written language is in the hands of a relatively few people. As a result of this uneven access to the types of writing valued in society, the ability to use and control the different forms of writing brings about exclusion from the social, economic and political advantages connected with writing proficiency. Consequently, in the push for greater equity and access, writing instruction globally has become a field of increasing interest in recent years.There have been numerous approaches to the teaching of writing in the history of language teaching for English as a first and second language, where first language refers to English mother tongue speakers and second language to learners who have English as a second or an additional language (see Kumaravadivelu, 2006; Hinkel, 2006; Canagarajah, 2006; Celce-Murcia, 1997) Not surprisingly, this magnitude of approaches has resulted in many paradigm shifts in the field of language teaching and in developing countries like South Africa, these international trends, approaches and paradigms shifts impact on local educational trends, as encapsulated in educational policy d ocuments. Ivanic (2004) argues that historically from the 19th and 20th century formal discourses have influenced a great deal of policy and practice in literacy education. Such discourses focused primarily on teaching of formal grammar, patterns and rules for sentence construction (pg 227). As a result, these discourses viewed language as a set of skills to be taught, learnt and mastered, and valued writing that demonstrated knowledge about language such as rules of syntax, sound-symbol relationships and sentence construction.Therefore, those writers that conformed to the correctness of grammar, letter, word, and sentence and text formation were viewed as competent writers. Furthermore, Dullay, Burt and Krashen (1982) state that the earliest work in the teaching of writing was based on the concept of controlled or guided composition and that language was seen as something that could be meaningfully visualised in taxonomies and rationalised into tables arranged across the two-dimens ional space of the textbook page. This focus on the conscious acquisition of rules and forms meant that teachers were focusing on parts of speech, demanding standards of correctness, and being prescriptive about what were ostensibly language facts.However, such an approach was found to be extremely limited because it did not necessarily produce speakers who were able to communicate successfully. Therefore, although learners might master the lists, structures and rules, this might not lead to the development of language fluency or to the ability to transfer such knowledge into coherent, cohesive and extended pieces of writing in school or beyond it. During the late 1970s more functional approaches developed. These were more concerned with what students can do with language, for example, meeting the practical demands in different contexts such as the workplace and other domains. Examples of writing tasks included filling out job applications, preparing for interviews, and writing appl ications.However, these involved minimal writing other than completing short tasks ‘designed to reinforce particular grammar points or language functions’ (Auerbach, 1999: 1). Moreover, such tasks were taught in classrooms and out of context of issues that could emerge in real contexts. As the limitations of a formalist approach to language teaching became increasingly obvious, teachers and researchers turned to a more process-oriented methodology. This focused more on the writing process than on the product and advocated expressive self-discovery from the learner/writer through a process approach to writing. Such a writing approach ‘focus[ed] on meaningful communication for learner-defined purposes’ (Auerbach, 1999:2).As a result, the learner is taken as the point of departure, and goes through a process of drafting, editing and redrafting; the teacher’s role is less prescriptive, allowing learners to be self-expressive and explore how to write. As such, the process approach won favour with those who were of the opinion that controlled composition was restrictive, viewing a liberal-progressive approach as more suited for first language classrooms (Paltridge, 2004). This approach was taken up by researchers interested in Second Language Acquisition (see Krashen, 1981; Ellis, 1984; Nunan, 1988), and in second language classes learners were also encouraged to develop ideas, draft, review and then write final drafts.On the other hand, Caudery (1995) argues that little seems to have been done to develop a process approach specifically for second language classes. Therefore, it appeared that the same principles should apply as for first language learners, for example, the use of peer and teacher commentary along with individual teacher-learner conferences, with minimal direction given by the teacher who allows learners to discover their voices as they continue through the writing process. This lack of direction was highlighted by re search in different contexts carried out by Caudery (1995) with practising teachers of second language writing. Based on questionnaires, findings showed that teachers in second language classes had differing perceptions and methods of implementing a process approach.This could however be ascribed to the different contexts that these second language teachers found themselves in, for example, large classes and different ways of assessing writing. One finding of the study was that teachers could easily dilute the process of writing into disconnected stages where both L2 learners and teachers could perceive it as steps to be followed towards an end product. As a result, the writing process became viewed as a means to an end. In addition, learners understood the process but did not explicitly learn the language features associated with different types of writing. A third approach that has gained prominence in recent decades is the socio-cultural practices approach which seeks to affirm t he culturally specific literacy practices that learners bring with them to school.Social practice advocates argue that literacy is not a universal, solely cognitive process but that literacy varies from context to context and culture to culture (Street, 1984, Barton, Hamilton & Ivanic, 2000). As a result, if literacy varies from context to context and culture to culture, then it follows that learners would bring to school different ways of writing. Accordingly, educators in multilingual classrooms should value learners’ cultural knowledge and ways of writing or use them as a bridge to new learning (Auerbach, 1999). Furthermore, the manner in which writing is taught transmits profound ideas to learners about who they are, what is entailed in the process of writing, and what they can do with writing.Therefore, the way in which writing is taught and learnt is a powerful tool for shaping the identities of learners and teachers in schools (ibid, 1999). Proponents of a fourth appro ach, the genre-based approach, have argued that both the socio-cultural and the process approaches to teaching writing result in learners being excluded from opportunities and that these approaches are in fact disempowering them (Delpit, 1998, Martin & Rose, 2005). They contend that certain domains, contexts and cultures yield more power than others and that if learners tell their stories, find their voices and celebrate their cultures; this is not enough for them to gain access to these more powerful domains.Therefore they suggest that learners should be empowered through access to writing the discourses of power, focusing on culture, context and text. Such approaches also enable an analysis of how identities, cultures, gender and power relations in society are portrayed in texts. Genre research done in Australia (see Disadvantaged Schools Project Research, 1973) where the additional language is the medium of instruction for aboriginal learners had major educational rewards for tea chers and learners participating in the project. Singapore too moved towards a text-based approach with the introduction of their 2001 English Language Syllabus (Kramer-Dhal, 2008).This approach has paid dividends for the Singapore education system, for example, continuous improvement in examination scores and achievements in international league tables, compared to the learners’ past underachievement in literacy tests (see PIRLS 2001, Singapore results) and this is maintained in the 2006 PIRLS testing of literacy and reading. The next section will draw on literature from genre theory, providing a brief overview of the notion of genre and how it has evolved as a concept. Then, literature on three different scholarly genre traditions New Rhetoric Studies, English for Academic Purposes and Systemic Functional Linguistics and their different educational contexts, purposes and research paradigms is explored and discussed. However this chapter mainly investigates literature relati ng to the Systemic FunctionalLinguistic perspective on genre, the history of genre theory and research done in Australia, the implications for schools and classrooms and how genre theory has impacted on the pedagogy of teaching literacy in disadvantaged multilingual settings. A brief overview focusing on critiques of Systemic Functional Linguistics is also provided. 2. 2 Defining Genre Johns (2002) argues that the term ‘genre’ is not new and cites Flowerdew and Medway (1994) who state that for more than a century genre has been defined as written texts that are primarily literary, that are recognised by textual regularities in form and content, are fixed and permanent and can be classified into exclusive categories and sub-categories. However, a major paradigm shift has occurred in relation to notions and definitions of genre, and texts are now viewed as purposeful, situated and ‘repeated’ (Miller, 1984).These characteristics mean that genres have a specifi c purpose in our social world, that they are situated in a specific cultural context and that they are the result of repeated actions reflected in texts. Similarly, Hyland (2004) defines genre as grouping texts that display similar characteristics, representing how writers use language to respond to similar contexts. Martin and Rose (2002) place more emphasis on the structure of genre, seeing it as a ‘staged, goal oriented social process. Social because we participate in genres with other people; goal oriented because we use genres to get things done; staged because it usually takes us a few steps to reach our goals’ (pg 7). 2. 2. 1 An Old Concept revisitedAs stated above, traditionally the concept of ‘genre’ has been used to define and classify literary texts such as drama, poetry and novels in the fields of arts, literature and the media Breure (2001). For example, a detective story, a novel or a diary are each regarded as belonging to a different genre. In recent years interest in the concept of genre as a tool for developing first language and second language instruction has increased tremendously (Paltridge, 2004; Hyon, 1996; Johns, 2002). In second language writing pedagogy in particular much interest has been focused on raising language students’ schematic awareness of genres as the route to genre and writing development (Hyon 1996; Cope & Kalantzis, 1993; Johns, 2002; Paltridge 2004).However there are various theoretical camps and their different understanding of genre reveals the intellectual tensions that are inherently part of the concept (Johns, 2002). These intellectual tensions arise from the divergent theoretical understandings of whether genre theory is grounded in language and text structure or whether it stems fundamentally from social theories of context and community. Hyon (1996) argues for three schools of thought: Systemic Functional Linguistics, New Rhetoric Studies and English for Academic Purposes where as Flowerdew (2002) divides theoretical camps into two groups: linguistic and non-linguistic approaches to genre theory. Genre, in short, continues to be ‘a controversial topic, though never a dull one’ (Kay & Dudley-Evans, 1998:308).I have chosen to follow Hyon’s (1996) classification for reviewing the genre literature because this classification makes it easier to highlight the similarities and differences in definitions, purposes and contexts, and allows for a greater understanding of various approaches to genre in three research traditions. As a result, three schools of thought New Rhetoric Studies, English for Academic Purposes and Systemic Functional Linguistics and their approaches to genre will be discussed. 2. 3 The Three Schools of Thought During the last two decades, a number of researchers who were disillusioned with process approaches to teaching writing saw genre as a tool to develop both first language and second language instruction (Hyon, 1996; J ohns, 2002; Feez, 2002).Hyon (1996) in her analysis of ‘Genre in Three Traditions and the implications for ESL’ argues that three dominant schools of thought, English for Specific Purposes, North American New Rhetoric Studies and Australian Systemic Linguistics have resulted in different approaches, definitions and classroom pedagogies of genre (see also Hyland 1996, 2002, & 2004). As Cope and Kalantzis (1993: 2) put it, ‘†¦ genre has the potential to mean many things to many people’. Paltridge (2002) calls it a ‘murky issue’. An understanding of the theoretical roots, analytical approaches and educational contexts of the different schools of thought is thus essential. 2. 3. 1 New Rhetoric Studies Genre Theories The first school of thought is the New Rhetoric approach to genre (Dias & Pare, 2000; Dias, Freedman, Medway, & Pare, 1999) which recognises the importance of contexts and the social nature of genres but it is rooted in Bakhtinâ₠¬â„¢s notion of dialogism.This notion of dialogism means that language is realised through utterances and these utterances exist in response to things that have been said before and in anticipation of things that will be said in response, and thus language does not occur in a vacuum (Adams & Artemeva, 2002). As a result, genre is a social phenomenon born by the specific goals and circumstances of interaction between people. Therefore, advocates of New Rhetoric Studies argue that genres are dynamic, relational and engaged in a process of endless utterances and re-utterances (Johns, 2002). As such, the focus of this theoretical camp is on the communicative function of language. Consequently, their perspective on genre is not primarily informed by a linguistic framework but draws on post-modern social literary theories.Accordingly, for these proponents, understanding genres involves not only a description of their lexico-grammatical format and rhetorical patterns but that also that gen re is ‘embedded in the communicative activities of the members of a discipline’ (Berkenkotter & Hucklin, 1995:2). This view of genre as a flexible instrument in the hands of participants within a community of practice has meant that the use of text in the classroom situation has not been a major focus (Johns, 2002). Theorists concentrate on how ‘expert’ users manipulate genres for social purposes and how such genres can promote the interest and values of a particular social group in a historical and/or institutional context. ContextHyon (1996:698) states that, as with English for Specific Purposes (ESP), genre teaching within this framework is predominantly concerned with first language university students and novice professionals. It is concerned with helping first language students become more successful readers and writers of academic and workplace texts. Unlike, ESP and SFL, therefore the New Rhetoric Studies refers to first language development. One co nsequence of this is that their focus is much less concerned with formal classroom instruction. Purpose The focus of writing in this framework is thus on making students aware of the contexts and social functions of the genres in which they engage (Bazerman, 1988) and not on their formal trimmings.Proponents view genres as complex, dynamic, ever changing, and therefore not amenable to explicit teaching (Johns, 2002; Coe, 2004; Cope & Kalantzis, 1993). They argue that it is through understanding of context that students can become more successful readers and writers of genres. 2. 3. 2 English for Specific Purposes Genre Theories The second major school of thought in relation to genre is English for Specific Purposes (ESP). The potential to perform competently in a variety of diverse genres is frequently a pivotal concern for English second language learners since it can be a determining factor in admission to higher paid career opportunities, higher educational studies, positive iden tities and life choices.As a result, ESP theorists ‘scrutinise the organisation and meaning of texts, the demands placed by the workplace or academic contexts on communicative behaviours and the pedagogic practices by which these behaviours can be developed’ (Hyon, 1996). Advocates of this paradigm are concerned with genre as a device for understanding and teaching the types of texts required of second language English speakers in scholarly and specialized contexts (Bhatia, 1993; Flowerdew, 1993; Gosden, 1992; Hopkins & Dudley-Evans, 1988; Swales, 1990). They propose that genre pedagogy could assist non-native speakers of English to master the functions and linguistic conventions that they need to read and write in disciplines at higher institutions and in related professions.According to Paltridge (2004), ESP genre studies are predominantly based on John Swales’s (1981, 1990) work on the discourse structure and linguistic features of scientific reports. Swalesâ €™s work had a strong influence in the teaching of ESP and more so on the teaching of academic writing to non-native English graduate students at higher institutions. Swales (1990) defines genre as ‘a class of communicative events with some shared set of communicative purposes and a range of patterns concerning structure’ (pg 68) Furthermore, Swales argues that the communicative purpose of a particular genre is recognised by members of the discourse community, who in ‘turn establish the constraints on what is generally acceptable in terms of content, positioning and format’ (Paltridge, 2004:11). ContextGiven the focus on scientific and other kinds of academic writing within this framework, genre teaching occurs mostly at universities teaching English for academic purposes and in English classes for specific writing needs, such as professional communication, business writing, and other workplace-related writing needs. However, Hyon (1996) argued that, at the time of writing, many ESP researchers had managed to present their descriptions of genres as useful discourse models but had failed to propose how this content could be used in classroom models. For example, Dudley-Evans and Hopkins presented their analysis of cyclical move patterns in scientific master’s dissertations as a teaching and learning resource but did not describe how this model could be converted into materials, tasks and activities in the classroom (Johns, 2002). Purpose As the focus of this theoretical camp is on international students atEnglish-medium universities in Britain and abroad, their focus is on demystifying rather than on social or political empowerment (Paltridge, 2004). Due to the concern in this paradigm with English for academic and professional purposes, they focus on the formal aspects of text analysis. In fact, many ESP researchers particularly emphasise the teaching of genre structures and grammatical features (Hyon, 1996) or ‘moves ’ in texts as to referred by Swales (1990). The purpose of genre teaching in this framework is therefore on teaching students the formal staged, qualities of genres so that they can recognise these features in the texts they read and then use them in the texts they write, thus providing access to ‘English language academic discourse communities’ (Paltridge, 2004:16).As a result, in their approach to textual analysis ESP theorist have paid specific attention to formal elements of genres and focused less on the specialised functions of texts and their social contexts (Hyon, 1996). 2. 3. 3 Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) Genre Theories This underplaying of the social context is taken up by the third school of thought, Systemic Functional Linguistics, which analyses the formal features of text in relation to language function in social context. SFL, referred to as ‘the Australian school’ in the United States of America, is rooted in the theoretical work of Halliday (Halliday, 1985; Halliday & Hasan, 1989; Johns, 2002). As a result, this theoretical camp is based on systemic functional linguistics and semiotics from which emerged the register-theory (Breure, 2001).Halliday developed his linguistic theory in order to give an account of the ways in which the English language functions as social practice (Halliday, 1985; Hasan & Halliday, 1989). As a result, this theoretical paradigm focuses on the systemic function of language from which choices are made to convey meaning within a specific context and with a specific purpose. Therefore, proponents within this framework propose that when a series of texts have similar purposes, they will probably have similar structures and language features. They are thus grouped as the same genre. Building on the work of Halliday, the idea of Systemic Functional Linguistics as a basis for language teaching emerged from the work of theorists such as Martin (1989, 1992).Christie (1991) and Rother y (1996) made attempts to take genre and grammar analysis a step further by providing and expanding scaffolds which bridge systemically between grammar and genre. They argue that texts need to be analysed as more than just mere sequences of clauses and that text analysis should focus on how language reveals or obscures social reality. Such an analysis can illuminate the ways in which language is used to construct social reality. Educational Context Cope and Kalantzis (1993) state that genre-based teaching started in Sydney as an ‘educational experiment’. The reason is, because by 1980, it seemed clear that the newly introduced progressive curriculum did not achieve the educational outcomes that it professed to (pg 1).As a result, researchers became interested in the types of writing and texts that learners in primary schools were expected to write as part of the process approach (Martin, 1989, 1991). These researchers were concerned that learners were not being prepared to write a wide enough range of texts needed for schooling, for example, findings showed that teachers mostly favoured narratives and recounts. So, genre-based research has predominantly been conducted at primary and secondary schools although it has also begun to include adult migrant English education as well as workplace training programmes (Adult Migrant Education service, 1992). As a result, in the Australian framework, the efforts of research are mostly centred on child and adolescent contexts unlike their ESP and New Rhetoric counterparts (Drury & Webb, 1991).A group of researchers in the late 1980’s started the Literacy in Education Research Network (LERN) (Cope, Kalantzis, Kress & Martin, 1993:239). Their aim was to develop an instructional approach to address the inadequacies of the process approach for teaching writing. For researchers in this paradigm, learners at school need explicit induction into the genres of power if they want to participate in mainstream te xtual and social processes both within and beyond the school (Macken-Horarik, 1996). Those learners who are at risk of failing fare better within a visible curriculum and this applies particularly to learners for whom the medium of instruction in not a home language. PurposeSystemic genre analysts contend that genre pedagogy should focus on language at the level of whole texts and should also take into account the social and cultural contexts in which texts are used (Martin, 1985, Rose & Martin, 2005). Furthermore, genres are viewed as social processes because ‘†¦ texts are patterned in reasonably predictable ways according to patterns of social interaction in a particular culture’ (Cope and Kalantzis, 1993:6). Consequently, SFL genre approaches see social purpose, language and context as interrelated in texts. Textual patterns reflect social conventions and interactions and these are executed through language.Therefore, genre teaching should move from linguistic d escription to an explanation and an understanding of why texts are shaped the way they are and how they achieve their particular goals (Paltridge, 2004). As a result, the basic principle underlying all such language approaches is that learners must learn not only to make grammatically correct statements about their world, but also develop the ability to use the language to get things done. The purpose of the Australian framework is to assist learners at school become more successful readers and writers of academic, school and workplace texts (Hyon,1996). Their goal is to help primary and secondary school learners ‘participate effectively in the school curriculum and the broader community’ (Callaghan 1991:72).Their focus is on learners learning to write in English as a second language and the challenges these learners might experience when writing and learning in a language that is not their mother tongue. Therefore they argue for explicit teaching through a cycle that à ¢â‚¬Ëœmodels and makes explicit the dominant forms of writing or text types valued in schools’ (Gibbons, 2002:52). Writing in an American context of disadvantaged students, Delpit (1998) strongly argues for the teaching of the genres of power, stating that if a learner is not already part of the culture of power, explicitly teaching the rules of this culture through genre makes access easier.Consequently, research on genre theory has been both politically and pedagogically motivated: a pedagogical project motivated by the political project of allowing equal access to social, economic and political benefits of Australian society through an explicit and visible literacy curriculum (Kress, 1993). As a result, Australia is often referred to as the place in which practitioners have been most successful in applying genre theory and research to pedagogy (Johns, 2002). My intention is to explore the use of SFL genre-based teaching as an alternative approach to teaching writing in gra de six at a multilingual primary school. However, approaches to research and pedagogy of SFL have not been accepted without critiques.These critiques originate from advocates of progressive literacy approaches (Lankshear & Knobel, 2000) and also from within genre camps practicing genre theory from different theoretical understandings. In the next section, I provide details of these critiques and a personal response to each critique. 2. 4 Critiques of genre of SFL There have been many critiques of SFL genre-based approaches, as mentioned in the previous section. Here I discuss three of the most telling: liberal progressive critiques, socio-cultural practice theorist critiques, and critical discourse analysts’ critiques about teaching the genres of power. The liberal progressivists claim that genre literacy entails a revival of transmission pedagogy.It seems to mean learning formal ‘language facts’ again. It is sometimes claimed that genre literacy teaching is foun ded on a pedagogy that will lead us back to the bad old days of authoritarian classrooms where some students found the authority congenial and succeeded, while others found the authority uncongenial and failed (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993). However, in contrast to transmission approaches which often treated texts in isolation and grammar as separate and external from the text, a genre-based approach views texts as closely linked to social context and uses linguistic analysis to unpack the choices that are made for social purposes. Rather than unthinkingly replicating rules, learners are ssisted towards conscious control and can be encouraged to exercise creativity and flexibility on an informed basis. The ‘authority’ provided acts as a scaffold and is gradually withdrawn, thus shifting responsibility towards the learner. A second major critique has been raised by social practice theorists such as Lave and Wenger (1991) whose research focus is from a situated learning perspec tive. These advocates of situated learning view genres as too complex and diverse to be detached from their original contexts and taught in a non-natural milieu such as the classroom context. Also, they argue that learning occurs through engaging with authentic real world tasks and that learning to write genres arises from a need in a specific context.Therefore, in authentic settings, writing involves the attainment of larger objectives, which often involve non-linguistic features, and thus the disjuncture between situations of use and situations of learning is unbridgeable. However, although this theory offers a persuasive account of how learning takes place through apprenticeship and mastery roles, especially how an apprentice becomes a fully literate member of a disciplinary work group, it does not propose a clear role for writing teachers in the language classroom (Hyland, 2004). In a SFL genre approach by contrast, the selection of topics and texts can highlight how cultures ar e portrayed as either negative or positive.It can help learners become aware of how language choices in texts are bound up with social purposes (Lankshear & Knobel, 2000). This awareness is necessary for entry into intellectual communities or social discourses and practices, and can help make learning relevant, appropriate and applicable to the context in and outside of the classroom. It can also include a critical element as it provides learners with a linguistic framework to analyse and critique texts. A final important critique is that teaching of the genres of power will not automatically lead to social and economic access in a fundamentally unequal society (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993).While this may be true, the consequences of not teaching these genres could lead to English second language speakers’ from poor working class backgrounds being disadvantaged in perpetuity. The discourses of scientists, doctors and lawyers, for example, are often incomprehensible and obscure, de nying access to many, particularly second English language speakers and those not familiar with the conventions of their associated genres. These social exclusions are marked linguistically (Cope and Kalantzis, 1993). Therefore, SFL genre theorists’ notion of genres as textual interventions could provide access and equity to those not familiar with a particular discourse in society.Consequently, genre teaching in this framework has the intention of empowering disadvantaged and underprivileged students by providing them with the linguistic resources to critically analyse and become more proficient writers of different text types, thus potentially providing access to the socio-economic and political domains currently denied to many learners at schools. A related point is that a genre-based approach runs the risk of reproducing the status quo (Luke, 1996). However, a genre approach should be able to include issues of inequality and power relations in the teaching context by adop ting a critical education theoretical perspective, which strives to unveil existing deep-rooted ideologies within society with the intention of empowering students to question and change the status quo.If teachers are made aware of such aspects in texts, how meaning is constructed and negotiated in texts, and how this shapes our thinking about the world, they might be able to raise awareness and consciousness about power inequalities through the development of effective critical literacy skills in English additional language classes. At the same time, ‘functional ways of talking and thinking about language facilitate critical analysis’ (Hyland, 2004: 42). As a result, it may assist learners to distinguish texts as constructs that can be debated in relatively accurate and explicit ways, thus becoming aware that texts could be analysed, evaluated, critiqued, deconstructed and reconstructed. Such awareness is crucial for further education or academic studies at higher inst itutions of learning. Thus a genre-based approach to teaching writing might bridge the gap between writing required at school and the academic writing skills essential for undergraduate studies.Having sketched the broad parameters of the three main approaches to genre and how genre approaches have developed in different ways and with different underlying goals, I now focus in greater detail on the Australian Framework. This approach appears to offer the greatest scope for South African contexts given its intention to provide equity and access to social and economic spheres in society, which is also a central principle of the South African Constitution (1994) and C2005. Furthermore, the focus on English second language learning contexts and aboriginal learners from disadvantaged, poor working class communities is similar to learners from disadvantaged communities who learn mostly through a medium of instruction which is not their home language.Another important reason for focusing on this approach is that this genre-based approach could inform the teaching of writing and future teacher training frameworks that aim to improve the literacy outcomes of learners in the intermediate phase in South African contexts. 2. 5 A Closer look at The Australian Framework It was Michael Halliday (1975) a professor of Linguistics at the University of Sydney, who was the founding father of systemic functional linguistics (SFL) and provided the catalyst for the development of genre theory in Australia (Cope and Kalantzis, 1993). Halliday and his theory of systemic functional linguistics introduced the theme of ‘learning language, learning through language, learning about language’ (Cope and Kalantzis, 1993:231).As discussed above, SFL focuses on language and how it functions or is used in cultural and situational contexts and argues that language can be described or realised by means of a framework comprising cultural context, situational context and linguistic featu res. The Australian framework is therefore rooted in a text-context model of language (Lankshear &Knobel, 2000; Gibbons 2002; Derewianka 2003). Furthermore, SFL interprets the context of situation and the context of culture as two interrelated domains (Christie & Unsworth 2000). The context of situation is the immediate context in which language is used. However this context of situation can vary in different cultures and as such it is culture-specific.This situational context is described in three main categories of semantic resources, field, mode and tenor, and collectively this is referred to as the register of a text (Lankshear & Knobel, 2000) The field describes the subject-matter of the social activity, its content or topic; tenor focuses on the nature of the relationships among the people involved; mode refers to ‘medium and role of language in the situation’ (Martin, 1997: 10) Therefore, it is the register (field, tenor and mode) which influences how language is used because it provides the social purpose of the text through answering ‘what is going on, who is taking part, the role language is playing’ (Martin & Rothery, 1993: 144). Hence, SFL explores the relationship between language and its social functions.The earliest work on applying this framework to education was carried out by Martin and two of his students Rothery and Christie who started a research project in 1978 using the field, tenor and mode framework to analyse writing produced in schools (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993; Kress, 1993). In 1980 Martin and Rothery examined student writing that had been collected over numerous years (Cope and Kalantzis, 1993). Their findings indicated that most school valued texts were short and limited to a few genres for example, labelling, observation, reports, recounts and narratives, with observations and recounts being the dominant genres (pg 233). Furthermore, they found that the texts produced in textbooks lacked development, even within story genres, were extremely gendered, and irrelevant to the needs of the community or secondary schools.They then developed the hypothesis that genres at schools should be explicitly taught by teachers. This research resulted in the development of a curriculum cycle providing scaffolding and explicit teaching through setting the field, deconstructing a text, modelling writing, jointly constructing a new text and culminating with individual writing (Macken-Horarik, 1998; Feez; 2002; Paltridge, 2004; Cope & Kalantzis, 1993; Martin& Francis, 1984). Building field and setting context is critical to each phase of the cycle and this refers to a range of activities which build up content for the genre and knowledge about the contexts in which it is deployed (Martin & Rose, 2000).In this way, learners move from everyday, common sense knowledge towards technical, specialist subject knowledge, and are gradually inducted into the discourse and field knowledge of school subjects. As a r esult, this approach can strengthen and promote learning language and about language across the curriculum. The logic of the curriculum cycle is based on the notion of ‘scaffolding’. Hammond (2000) and Gibbons (2002) refer to this as ‘scaffolding language’ based on Vygotsky’s (1976) zone of proximal development (Derewianka, 2003). In this process the teacher takes a more direct role in the initial phase, with the learner in the role of apprentice. As the learner develops greater control of the genre, the teacher gradually withdraws support and encourages learner independence (Derewianka, 2003).Therefore, genre literacy has the intention to reinstate the teacher as professional, as expert on language, whose role in the classroom should be authoritative but not authoritarian as opposed to the teacher as facilitator in more progressive teaching models (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993). As a result, the curriculum cycle and its scaffolding approach could be valua ble in activating the schemata of English second language learners as opposed to a context where English teaching approaches are traditional and narrow. Such approaches could have negative educational impacts on disadvantaged learners. 2. 6 The Disadvantaged Schools Programme Luke and Kale (1989:127) argue that monolingual and monocultural practices permeated official language and education planning in Australia prior 1970. Similar to South African apartheid policies, Australia practiced a ‘White Australian Policy’ (Luke & Kale, 1989:127).However, in the early 1970s the Australian government recognised that aboriginals and islander learners should be integrated into mainstream schools (Luke & Kale, 1989). As a result, the need to acknowledge Aboriginal and migrant languages became a priority in educational policies. Furthermore, Diane Russell (2002) states that up to 1967 very few Aboriginal students in South Australia entered secondary school unless they were wards of the state and, given this history of disadvantage, much of the literature about the education of Aboriginal students since then refers to the poor retention and attainment rate of Aboriginal students compared to their non-Aboriginal peers.As a result, the Disadvantaged Schools Programme (DSP), an initiative of the Interim Committee of the Schools Commission (1973), was initiated to reduce the effects of poverty on learners at school (McKenzie, 1990) and participation was based on the social and economic conditions of the community from which the school draws its learners. Thus the intention of the DSP was to improve the learning outcomes of learners from educationally disadvantaged backgrounds in Australia to increase their life choices (Randell, 1979). Therefore, a fundamental aim of the DSP was to equip disadvantaged learners with power, through education, to enter and share fully in the benefits of society as a matter of social justice.Furthermore, a majority of Aboriginal people grow up in homes where Standard Australian English is at most a second dialect, sometimes first encountered on the first day of school. Accordingly, accepting the language children bring to school and using that to build competence in Standard Australian English is the ‘key to improving the performance of Aboriginal students’ (www. daretolead. edu. au). Genre theorists have been concerned with equitable outcomes, thus discourses of generation, ethnicity and class have been a preoccupation. These theorists argued that progressive pedagogies were marginalising working-class Aborigine and other disadvantaged learners (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993).For Burns (1990) progressive curriculum approaches led to a confusing array of approaches and methodologies and failed to provide a well-formulated theory of language. Further, Cope (1989) argued that an ‘authoritative’ pedagogy for the 1990s was needed to replace the progressive curriculum of the mid-1970s as this had ne glected to make explicit to learners the knowledge they need to gain to access socially powerful forms of language. Due to the above kinds of debates in the SFL genre theory camp, a literacy consultant, Mike Callaghan, working with the DSP in Sydney, decided that SFL might be a viable theory and this resulted in the Language and Social Power Project.Teachers who were disillusioned with progressive teaching methods became eagerly involved in this project (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993). Additionally, Cope and Kalantzis (1993) report that teachers discovered that genre theory did not dismantle all the progressive language approaches; in fact, it enhanced progressive language teaching and highlighted that there is a social purpose in writing. This, however, meant teachers’ knowledge and skills about language in social contexts had to be developed through extensive in-service training and in-class support 2. 7 Research originating from the Disadvantaged Schools Programme Scholars like M artin and Rothery (1986) began to analyse texts using SFL theory.This took the form of linguistic analysis with each text being deconstructed into its structural features, or schematic phases, and then being analysed for its typical language features. Most of these projects aimed to link theory and practice (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993). As a result, teachers gained knowledge and an ability to critically analyse the texts that they used in practice. Research identified factual genres such as reports, expositions, discussions, recounts, explanations, and procedures, which could be used in classrooms. Furthermore, as this project progressed, the data were translated into classroom practice using a pedagogical model developed by project members that resulted in a major breakthrough for the classroom, that is, the curriculum cycle or the teaching and learning cycle (Callaghan & Rothery, 1988).The National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research was commissioned in 1990 to evaluate the effectiveness of projects like the Language and Social Power Project and was asked to report on improvements in learner writing as well as on the impact of genre pedagogy on teachers’ knowledge of the social function of language and their ability to assess the effectiveness of learners’ writing (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993). The findings of the report highlighted an ‘overwhelmingly’ positive response from participating teachers (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993). Teachers praised the in-service and the in-class support of the demonstration lessons as well as the backup support material, both printed and audio-visual. Furthermore, in terms of evaluating the learners’ written texts, it was found that learners from participating schools wrote a broader range of genres, that these included more factual texts, and that these learners had a higher success rate than learners from non-participating schools (Cope & Kalantzis, 1993). 2. 9 SFL and the School Writing Curr iculumKress (1994) states that until recently ‘writing has been regarded as an alternative medium of language, giving permanence to utterances’ (pg 7) and attention on writing was thus focussed on mechanical aspects. However, increasing evidence indicates that speech and writing have distinct grammatical and syntactic organisation, and further that writing and speaking occur in distinct social settings which have significant effects on the syntactic and textual structures of speech and writing (Kress, 1993). Literacy in many Western schools presupposes that learners have developed spoken language skills in the relevant language but this may not be the case for second language learners (Gibbons, 2004).As a result, these learners would have even more to learn about writing because learners initially use their knowledge about spoken language to bridge the divide between speaking and writing (Kress 1994). The school writing curriculum and its teachers are then powerful in d eveloping or hindering the writing development of learners in primary school. As discussed above, writing curricula drawing from progressive theories which stress the process of writing over content, see the teacher as a facilitator of writing, and no focus on linguistic rules for speaking or writing could result in English second language learners being denied access to development as writers. Therefore, writing curricula which focus on the teaching of genre are potentially powerful in that they could provide ‘generic power’ to learners. Power to use, interpret, exploit and innovate generic forms is the function of generic knowledge which is accessible only to members of disciplinary communities’ (Bhatia, 2003:67). Accordingly, the teaching of SFL genre approaches and their linguistic frameworks could provide a scaffold for English second language learners to be inducted into social contexts, purposes and linguistic features of both spoken and written dominant d iscourses. Such approaches might lead towards opportunities for equity and access for non-native speakers of English. A writing curriculum rooted in genre theory would have implications for the classroom and the next section discusses some of these implications for pedagogy. 2. 9. 1 SFL Genre in the classroomThe teaching of genre in the classroom requires explicit teaching of language at text level and of the interdependence of language use and context (Paltridge, 2004). Halliday and Hasan (1985) state that SFL deals with language in context: ‘The context of situation, the context in which the text unfolds, is encapsulated in the text, not in a kind of piecemeal fashion, not in the other extreme in a mechanical way, but through a systemic relationship between the social environment on the hand, and the functional organisation of language on the other. If we treat both text and context as semiotic phenomena, as modes of meaning, so to speak, we can get from one to the other in a revealing way. ’ (Pgs 11-12)Such an approach implies that language teachers in primary and secondary schools should not only have English subject knowledge but also understand and have knowledge of linguistically informed genre-based literacy pedagogy. 2. 10 Conclusion This chapter has provided an overview of the three main schools of thought in relation to genre and then focused in more detail on the theoretical perspective which seems to offer the most productive insights for the South African context, Systemic Functional Linguistics. The next chapter describes the methodology I used to investigate the potential of such an approach in one primary school. Bibliography Adams, C. & Artemeva. N. (2002).Writing Instruction in English for Academic (EAP) classes: Introducing second language learners to the Academic Community. In M. 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